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SIX PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL REALISM-
SIX PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL REALISM
Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The
Struggle for Power and Peace, Fifth Edition,
Revised, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978, pp.
4-15
1.Political realism believes that politics, like
society in general, is governed by objective laws
that have their roots in human nature. In order to
improve society it is first necessary to
understand the laws by which society lives. The
operation of these laws being impervious to our
preferences, men will challenge them only at the
risk of failure.
Realism, believing as it does in the objectivity
of the laws of politics, must also believe in the
possibility of developing a rational theory that
reflects, however imperfectly and one-sidedly,
these objective laws. It believes also, then, in
the possibility of distinguishing in politics
between truth and opinion-between what is true
objectively and rationally, supported by evidence
and illuminated by reason, and what is only a
subjective judgment, divorced from the facts as
they are and informed by prejudice and wishful
thinking.
Human nature, in which the laws of politics have
their roots, has not changed since the classical
philosophies of China, India, and Greece
endeavored to discover these laws. Hence, novelty
is not necessarily a virtue in political theory,
nor is old age a defect. The fact that a theory of
politics, if there be such a theory, has never
been heard of before tends to create a presumption
against, rather than in favor of, its soundness.
Conversely, the fact that a theory of politics was
developed hundreds or even thousands of years
ag~as was the theory of the balance of power-does
not create a presumption that it must be outmoded
and obsolete. A theory of politics must be
subjected to the dual test of reason and
experience. To dismiss such a theory because it
had its flowering in centuries past is to present
not a rational argument but a modernistic
prejudice that takes for granted the superiority
of the present over the past. To dispose of the
revival of such a theory as a "fashion" or "fad"
is tantamount to assuming that in matters
political we can have opinions but no truths.
For realism, theory consists in ascertaining facts
and giving them meaning through reason. It assumes
that the character of a foreign policy can be
ascertained only through the examination of the
political acts performed and of the foreseeable
consequences of these acts. Thus we can find out
what statesmen have actually done, and from the
foreseeable consequences of their acts we can
surmise what their objectives might have been.
Yet examination of the facts is not enough. To
give meaning to the factual raw material of
foreign policy, we must approach political reality
with a kind of rational outline, a map that
suggests to us the possible meanings of foreign
policy. In other words, we put ourselves in the
position of a statesman who must meet a certain
problem of foreign policy under certain
circumstances, and we ask ourselves what the
rational alternatives are from which a statesman
may choose who must meet this problem under these
circumstances (presuming always that he acts in a
rational manner), and which of these rational
alternatives this particular statesman, acting
under these circumstances, is likely to choose. It
is the testing of this rational hypothesis against
the actual facts and their consequences that gives
theoretical meaning to the facts of international
politics.
2. The main signpost that helps political realism
to find its way through the landscape of
international politics is the concept of interest
defined in terms of power. This concept provides
the link between reason trying to understand
international politics and the facts to be
understood. It sets politics as an autonomous
sphere of action and understanding apart from
other spheres, such as economics (understood in
terms of interest defined as wealth), ethics,
aesthetics, or religion. Without such a concept a
theory of politics, international or domestic,
would be altogether impossible, for without it we
could not distinguish between political and
nonpolitical facts, nor could we bring at least a
measure of systematic order to the political
sphere.
We assume that statesmen think and act in terms of
interest defined as power, and the evidence of
history bears that assumption out. That assumption
allows us to retrace and anticipate, as it were,
the steps a statesman-past, present, or future~has
taken or will take on the political scene. We look
over his shoulder when he writes his dispatches;
we listen in on his conversation with other
statesmen; we read and anticipate his very
thoughts. Thinking in terms of interest defined as
power, we think as he does, and as disinterested
observers we understand his thoughts and actions
perhaps better than he, the actor on the political
scene, does himself.
The concept of interest defined as power imposes
intellectual discipline upon the observer, infuses
rational order into the subject matter of
politics, and thus makes the theoretical
understanding of politics possible. On the side of
the actor, it provides for rational discipline in
action and creates that astounding continuity in
foreign policy which makes American, British, or
Russian foreign policy appear as an intelligible,
rational continuum, by and large consistent within
itself, regardless of the different motives,
preferences, and intellectual and moral qualities
of successive statesmen. A realist theory of
international politics, then, will guard against
two popular fallacies: the concern with motives
and the concern with ideological preferences.
To search for the clue to foreign policy
exclusively in the motives of statesmen is both
futile and deceptive. It is futile because motives
are the most illusive of psychological data,
distorted as they are, frequently beyond
recognition, by the interests and emotions of
actor and observer alike. Do we really know what
our own motives are? And what do we know of the
motives of others?
Yet even if we had access to the real motives of
statesmen, that knowledge would help us little in
understanding foreign policies, and might well
lead us astray. It is true that the knowledge of
the statesman’s motives may give us one among many
clues as to what the direction of his foreign
policy might be. It cannot give us, however, the
one clue by which to predict his foreign policies.
History shows no exact and necessary correlation
between the quality of motives and the quality of
foreign policy. This is true in both moral and
political terms.
We cannot conclude from the good intentions of a
statesman that his foreign policies will be either
morally praiseworthy or politically successful.
Judging his motives, we can say that he will not
intentionally pursue policies that are morally
wrong, but we can say nothing about the
probability of their success. If we want to know
the moral and political qualities of his actions,
we must know them, not his motives. How often have
statesmen been motivated by the desire to improve
the world, and ended by making it worse? And how
often have they sought one goal, and ended by
achieving something they neither expected nor
desired?
Neville Chamberlain’s politics of appeasement
were, as far as we can judge, inspired by good
motives; he was probably less motivated by
considerations of personal power than were many
other British prime ministers, and he sought to
preserve peace and to assure the happiness of all
concerned. Yet his policies helped to make the
Second World War inevitable, and to bring untold
miseries to millions of men. Sir Winston
Churchill’s motives, on the other hand, were much
less universal in scope and much more narrowly
directed toward personal and national power, yet
the foreign policies that sprang from these
inferior motives were certainly superior in moral
and political quality to those pursued by his
predecessor. Judged by his motives, Robespierre
was one of the most virtuous men who ever lived.
Yet it was the utopian radicalism of that very
virtue that made him kill those less virtuous than
himself, brought him to the scaffold, and
destroyed the revolution of which he was a leader.
Good motives give assurance against deliberately
bad policies; they do not guarantee the moral
goodness and political success of the policies
they inspire. What is important to know, if one
wants to understand foreign policy, is not
primarily the motives of a statesman, but his
intellectual ability to comprehend the essentials
of foreign policy, as well as his political
ability to translate what he has comprehended into
successful political action. It follows that while
ethics in the abstract judges the moral qualities
of motives, political theory must judge the
political qualities of intellect, will, and
action.
A realist theory of international politics will
also avoid the other popular fallacy of equating
the foreign policies of a statesman with his
philosophic or political sympathies, and of
deducing the former from the latter. Statesmen,
especially under contemporary conditions, may well
make a habit of presenting their foreign policies
in terms of their philosophic and political
sympathies in order to gain popular support for
them. Yet they will distinguish with Lincoln
between their "o~dal duty," which is to think and
act in terms of the national interest, and their
"personal wish," which is to see their own moral
values and political principles realized
throughout the world. Political realism does not
require, nor does it condone, indifference to
political ideals and moral principles, but it
requires indeed a sharp distinction between the
desirable and the possible-between what is
desirable everywhere and at all times and what is
possible under the concrete circumstances of time
and place.
It stands to reason that not all foreign policies
have always followed so rational, objective, and
unemotional a course. The contingent elements of
personality, prejudice, and subjective preference,
and of all the weaknesses of intellect and will
which flesh is heir to, are bound to deflect
foreign policies from their rational course.
Especially where foreign policy is conducted under
the conditions of democratic control, the need to
marshal popular emotions to the support of foreign
policy cannot fail to impair the rationality of
foreign policy itself. Yet a theory of foreign
policy which aims at rationality must for the time
being, as it were, abstract from these irrational
elements and seek to paint a picture of foreign
policy which presents the rational essence to be
found in experience, without the contingent
deviations from rationality which are also found
in experience.
Deviations from rationality which are not the
result of the personal whim or the personal
psychopathology of the policy maker may appear
contingent only from the vantage point of
rationality, but may themselves be elements in a
coherent system of irrationality. The conduct of
the Indochina War by the United States suggests
that possibility. It is a question worth looking
into whether modern psychology and psychiatry have
provided us with the conceptual tools which would
enable us to construct, as it were, a
counter-theory of irrational politics, a kind of
pathology of international politics.
The experience of the Indochina War suggests five
factors such a theory might encompass: the
imposition upon the empirical world of a
simplistic and a priori picture of the world
derived from folklore and ideological assumption,
that is, the replacement of experience with
superstition; the refusal to correct this picture
of the world in the light of experience; the
persistence in a foreign policy derived from the
misperception of reality and the use of
intelligence for the purpose not of adapting
policy to reality but of reinterpreting reality to
fit policy; the egotism of the policy makers
widening the gap between perception and policy, on
the one hand, and reality, on the other; finally,
the urge to close the gap at least subjectively by
action, any kind of action, that creates the
illusion of mastery over a recalcitrant reality.
According to the Wall Street Journal of April 3,
1970, "the desire to ’do something’ pervades top
levels of Government and may overpower other
’common sense’ advice that insists the U.S.
ability to shape events is negligible. The yen for
action could lead to bold policy as therapy."
The difference between international politics as
it actually is and a rational theory derived from
it is like the difference between a photograph and
a painted portrait. The photograph shows
everything that can be seen by the naked eye; the
painted portrait does not show everything that can
be seen by the naked eye, but it shows, or at
least seeks to show, one thing that the naked eye
cannot see: the human essence of the person
portrayed.
Political realism contains not only a theoretical
but also a normative element. It knows that
political reality is replete with contingencies
and systemic irrationalities and points to the
typical influences they exert upon foreign policy.
Yet it shares with all social theory the need, for
the sake of theoretical understanding, to stress
the rational elements of political reality; for it
is these rational elements that make reality
intelligible for theory. Political realism
presents the theoretical construct of a rational
foreign policy which experience can never
completely achieve.
At the same time political realism considers a
rational foreign policy to be good foreign policy;
for only a rational foreign policy minimizes risks
and maximizes benefits and, hence, complies both
with the moral precept of prudence and the
political requirement of success. Political
realism wants the photographic picture of the
political world to resemble as much as possible
its painted portrait. Aware of the inevitable gap
between good—that is, rational—foreign policy and
foreign policy as it actually is, political
realism maintains not only that theory must focus
upon the rational elements of political reality,
but also that foreign policy ought to be rational
in view of its own moral and practical purposes.
Hence, it is no argument against the theory here
presented that actual foreign policy does not or
cannot live up to it. That argument misunderstands
the intention of this book, which is to present
not an indiscriminate description of political
reality, but a rational theory of international
politics. Far from being invalidated by the fact
that, for instance, a perfect balance of power
policy will scarcely be found in reality, it
assumes that reality, being deficient in this
respect, must be understood and evaluated as an
approximation to an ideal system of balance of
power.
3. Realism assumes that its key concept of
interest defined as power is an objective category
which is universally valid, but it does not endow
that concept with a meaning that is fixed once and
for all. The idea of interest is indeed of the
essence of politics and is unaffected by the
circumstances of time and place. Thucydides’
statement, born of the experiences of ancient
Greece, that "identity of interests is the surest
of bonds whether between states or individuals"
was taken up in the nineteenth century by Lord
Salisbury’s remark that "the only bond of union
that endures" among nations is "the absence of all
clashing interests." It was erected into a general
principle of government by George Washington:
A small knowledge of human nature will convince
us, that, with far the greatest part of mankind,
interest is the governing principle; and that
almost every man is more or less, under its
influence. Motives of public virtue may for a
time, or in particular instances, actuate men to
the observance of a conduct purely disinterested;
but they are not of themselves sufficient to
produce persevering conformity to the refined
dictates and obligations of social duty. Few men
are capable of making a continual sacrifice of all
views of private interest, or advantage, to the
common good. It is vain to exclaim against the
depravity of human nature on this account; the
fact is so, the experience of every age and nation
has proved it and we must in a great measure,
change the constitution of man, before we can make
it otherwise. No institution, not built on the
presumptive truth of these maxims can succeed.
It was echoed and enlarged upon in our century by
Max Weber’s observation:
Interests (material and ideal), not ideas,
dominate directly the actions of men. Yet the
"images of the world" created by these ideas have
very often served as switches determining the
tracks on which the dynamism of interests kept
actions moving.
Yet the kind of interest determining political
action in a particular period of history depends
upon the political and cultural context within
which foreign policy is formulated. The goals that
might be pursued by nations in their foreign
policy can run the whole gamut of objectives any
nation has ever pursued or might possibly pursue.
The same observations apply to the concept of
power. Its content and the manner of its use are
determined by the political and cultural
environment. Power may comprise anything that
establishes and maintains the control of man over
man. Thus power covers all social relationships
which serve that end, from physical violence to
the most subtle psychological ties by which one
mind controls another. Power covers the domination
of man by man, both when it is disciplined by
moral ends and controlled by constitutional
safeguards, as in Western democracies, and when it
is that untamed and barbaric force which finds its
laws in nothing but its own strength and its sole
justification in its aggrandizement.
Political realism does not assume that the
contemporary conditions under which foreign policy
operates, with their extreme instability and the
ever present threat of large-scale violence,
cannot be changed. The balance of power, for
instance, is indeed a perennial element of all
pluralistic societies, as the authors of The
Federalist papers well knew; yet it is capable of
operating, as it does in the United States, under
the conditions of relative stability and peaceful
conflict. If the factors that have given rise to
these conditions can be duplicated on the
international scene, similar conditions of
stability and peace will then prevail there, as
they have over long stretches of history among
certain nations.
What is true of the general character of
international relations is also true of the nation
state as the ultimate point of reference of
contemporary foreign policy. While the realist
indeed believes that interest is the perennial
standard by which political action must be judged
and directed, the contemporary connection between
interest and the nation state is a product of
history, and is therefore bound to disappear in
the course of history. Nothing in the realist
position militates against the assumption that the
present division of the political world into
nation states will be replaced by larger units of
a quite different character, more in keeping with
the technical potentialities and the moral
requirements of the contemporary world.
The realist parts company with other schools of
thought before the all-important question of how
the contemporary world is to be transformed. The
realist is persuaded that this transformation can
be achieved only through the workmanlike
manipulation of the perennial forces that have
shaped the past as they will the future. The
realist cannot be persuaded that we can bring
about that transformation by confronting a
political reality that has its own laws with an
abstract ideal that refuses to take those laws
into account.
4. Political realism is aware of the moral
significance of political action. It is also aware
of the ineluctable tension between the moral
command and the requirements of successful
political action. And it is unwilling to gloss
over and obliterate that tension and thus to
obfuscate both the moral and the political issue
by making it appear as though the stark facts of
politics were morally more satisfying than they
actually are, and the moral law less exacting than
it actually is.
Realism maintains that universal moral principles
cannot be applied to the actions of states in
their abstract universal formulation, but that
they must be filtered through the concrete
circumstances of time and place. The individual
may say for himself: "Fiat justitia, pereat mundus
(Let justice be done, even if the world perish),"
but the state has no right to say so in the name
of those who are in its care. Both individual and
state must judge political action by universal
moral principles, such as that of liberty. Yet
while the individual has a moral right to
sacrifice himself in defense of such a moral
principle, the state has no right to let its moral
disapprobation of the infringement of liberty get
in the way of successful political action, itself
inspired by the moral principle of national
survival. There can be no political morality
without prudence; that is, without consideration
of the political consequences of seemingly moral
action. Realism, then, considers prudence-the
weighing of the consequences of alternative
political actions-to be the supreme virtue in
politics. Ethics in the abstract judges action by
its conformity with the moral law; political
ethics judges action by its political
consequences. Classical and medieval philosophy
knew this, and so did Lincoln when he said:
I do the very best I know how, the very best I
can, and I mean to keep doing so until the end. If
the end brings me out all right, what is said
against me won’t amount to anything. If the end
brings me out wrong, ten angels swearing I was
right would make no difference.
5. Political realism refuses to identify the moral
aspirations of a particular nation with the moral
laws that govern the universe. As it distinguishes
between truth and opinion, so it distinguishes
between truth and idolatry. All nations are
tempted-and few have been able to resist the
temptation for long-to clothe their own particular
aspirations and actions in the moral purposes of
the universe. To know that nations are subject to
the moral law is one thing, while to pretend to
know with certainty what is good and evil in the
relations among nations is quite another. There is
a world of difference between the belief that all
nations stand under the judgment of God,
inscrutable to the human mind, and the blasphemous
conviction that God is always on one’s side and
that what one wills oneself cannot fail to be
willed by God also.
The lighthearted equation between a particular
nationalism and the counsels of Providence is
morally indefensible, for it is that very sin of
pride against which the Greek tragedians and the
Biblical prophets have warned rulers and ruled.
That equation is also politically pernicious, for
it is liable to engender the distortion in
judgment which, in the blindness of crusading
frenzy, destroys nations and civilizations-in the
name of moral principle, ideal, or God himself.
On the other hand, it is exactly the concept of
interest defined in terms of power that saves us
from both that moral excess and that political
folly. For if we look at all nations, our own
included, as political entities pursuing their
respective interests defined in terms of power, we
are able to do justice to all of them. And we are
able to do justice to all of them in a dual sense:
We are able to judge other nations as we judge our
own and, having judged them in this fashion, we
are then capable of pursuing policies that respect
the interests of other nations, while protecting
and promoting those of our own. Moderation in
policy cannot fail to reflect the moderation of
moral judgment.
6. The difference, then, between political realism
and other schools of thought is real, and it is
profound. However much the theory of political
realism may have been misunderstood and
misinterpreted, there is no gainsaying its
distinctive intellectual and moral attitude to
matters political.
Intellectually, the political realist maintains
the autonomy of the political sphere, as the
economist, the lawyer, the moralist maintain
theirs. He thinks in terms of interest defined as
power, as the economist thinks in terms of
interest defined as wealth; the lawyer, of the
conformity of action with legal rules; the
moralist, of the conformity of action with moral
principles. The economist asks: "How does this
policy affect the wealth of society, or a segment
of it?" The lawyer asks: "Is this policy in accord
with the rules of law?" The moralist asks: "Is
this policy in accord with moral principles?" And
the political realist asks: "How does this policy
affect the power of the nation?" (Or of the
federal government, of Congress, of the party, of
agriculture, as the case may be.)
The political realist is not unaware of the
existence and relevance of standards of thought
other than political ones. As political realist,
he cannot but subordinate these other standards to
those of politics. And he parts company with other
schools when they impose standards of thought
appropriate to other spheres upon the political
sphere. It is here that political realism takes
issue with the "legalistic-moralistic approach" to
international politics. That this issue is not, as
has been contended, a mere figment of the
imagination, but goes to the very core of the
controversy, can be shown from many historical
examples. Three will suffice to make the point.3
In 1939 the Soviet Union attacked Finland. This
action confronted France and Great Britain with
two issues, one legal, the other political. Did
that action violate the Covenant of the League of
Nations and, if it did, what countermeasures
should France and Great Britain take? The legal
question could easily be answered in the
affirmative, for obviously the Soviet Union had
done what was prohibited by the Covenant. The
answer to the political question depends, first,
upon the manner in which the Russian action
affected the interests of France and Great
Britain; second, upon the existing distribution of
power between France and Great Britain, on the one
hand, and the Soviet Union and other potentially
hostile nations, especially Germany, on the other;
and, third, upon the influence that the
countermeasures were likely to have upon the
interests of France and Great Britain and the
future distribution of power. France and Great
Britain, as the leading members of the League of
Nations, saw to it that the Soviet Union was
expelled from the League, and they were prevented
from joining Finland in the war against the Soviet
Union only by Sweden’s refusal to allow their
troops to pass through Swedish territory on their
way to Finland. If this refusal by Sweden had not
saved them, France and Great Britain would shortly
have found themselves at war with the Soviet Union
and Germany at the same time.
The policy of France and Great Britain was a
classic example of legalism in that they allowed
the answer to the legal question, legitimate
within its sphere, to determine their political
actions. Instead of asking both questions, that of
law and that of power, they asked only the
question of law; and the answer they received
could have no bearing on the issue that their very
existence might have depended upon.
The second example illustrates the "moralistic
approach" to international politics. It concerns
the international status of the Communist
government of China. The rise of that government
confronted the Western world with two issues, one
moral, the other political. Were the nature and
policies of that government in accord with the
moral principles of the Western world? Should the
Western world deal with such a government? The
answer to the first question could not fail to be
in the negative. Yet it did not follow with
necessity that the answer to the second question
should also be in the negative. The standard of
thought applied to the first
--the moral question—was simply to test the nature
and the policies of the Communist government of
China by the principles of Western morality. On
the other hand, the second—the political
question—had to be subjected to the complicated
test of the interests involved and the power
available on either side, and of the bearing of
one or the other course of action upon these
interests and power. The application of this test
could well have led to the conclusion that it
would be wiser not to deal with the Communist
government of China. To arrive at this conclusion
by neglecting this test altogether and answering
the political question in terms of the moral issue
was indeed a classic example of the "moralistic
approach" to international politics.
The third case illustrates strikingly the contrast
between realism and the legalistic-moralistic
approach to foreign policy. Great Britain, as one
of the guarantors of the neutrality of Belgium,
went to war with Germany in August 1914 because
Germany had violated the neutrality of Belgium.
The British action could be justified either in
realistic or legalistic-moralistic terms. That is
to say, one could argue realistically that for
centuries it had -been axiomatic for British
foreign policy to prevent the control of the Low
Countries by a hostile power. It was then not so
much the violation of Belgium’s neutrality per se
as the hostile intentions of the violator which
provided the rationale for British intervention.
If the violator had been another nation but
Germany, Great Britain might well have refrained
from intervening. This is the position taken by
Sir Edward Grey, British Foreign Secretary during
that period. Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs
Hardinge remarked to him in 1908: "If France
violated Belgian neutrality in a war against
Germany, it is doubtful whether England or Russia
would move a finger to maintain Belgian
neutrality, while if the neutrality of Belgium was
violated by Germany, it is probable that the
converse would be the case." Whereupon Sir Edward
Grey replied: "This is to the point." Yet one
could also take the legalistic and moralistic
position that the violation of Belgium’s
neutrality per se, because of its legal and moral
defects and regardless of the interests at stake
and of the identity of the violator, justified
British and, for that matter, American
intervention. This was the position which Theodore
Roosevelt took in his letter to Sir Edward Grey of
January 22, 1915:
To me the crux of the situation has been Belgium.
If England or France had acted toward Belgium as
Germany has acted I should have opposed them,
exactly as I now oppose Germany. I have
emphatically approved your action as a model for
what should be done by those who believe that
treaties should be observed in good faith and that
there is such a thing as international morality. I
take this position as an American who is no more
an Englishman than he is a German, who endeavors
loyally to serve the interests of his own country,
but who also endeavors to do what he can for
justice and decency as regards mankind at large,
and who therefore feels obliged to judge all other
nations by their conduct on any given occasion.
This realist defense of the autonomy of the
political sphere against its subversion by other
modes of thought does not imply disregard for the
existence and importance of these other modes of
thought. It rather implies that each should be
assigned its proper sphere and function. Political
realism is based upon a pluralistic conception of
human nature. Real man is a composite of "economic
man," "political man," "moral man," "religious
man," etc. A man who was nothing but "political
man" would be a beast, for he would be completely
lacking in moral restraints. A man who was nothing
but "moral man" would be a fool, for he would be
completely lacking in prudence. A man who was
nothing but "religious man" would be a saint, for
he would be completely lacking in worldly desires.
Recognizing that these different facets of human
nature exist, political realism also recognizes
that in order to understand one of them one has to
deal with it on its own terms. That is to say, if
I want to understand "religious man," I must for
the time being abstract from the other aspects of
human nature and deal with its religious aspect as
if it were the only one. Furthermore, I must apply
to the religious sphere the standards of thought
appropriate to it, always remaining aware of the
existence of other standards and their actual
influence upon the religious qualities of man.
What is true of this facet of human nature is true
of all the others. No modern economist, for
instance, would conceive of his science and its
relations to other sciences of man in any other
way. It is exactly through such a process of
emancipation from other standards of thought, and
the development of one appropriate to its subject
matter, that economics has developed as an
autonomous theory of the economic activities of
man. To contribute to a similar development in the
field of politics is indeed the purpose of
political realism.
It is in the nature of things that a theory of
politics which is based upon such principles will
not meet with unanimous approval-nor does, for
that matter, such a foreign policy. For theory and
policy alike run counter to two trends in our
culture which are not able to reconcile themselves
to the assumptions and results of a rational,
objective theory of politics. One of these trends
disparages the role of power in society on grounds
that stem from the experience and philosophy of
the nineteenth century; we shall address ourselves
to this tendency later in greater detail.4 The
other trend, opposed to the realist theory and
practice of politics, stems from the very
relationship that exists, and must exist, between
the human mind and the political sphere. For
reasons that we shall discuss later5 the human
mind in its day-by-day operations cannot bear to
look the truth of politics straight in the face.
It must disguise, distort, belittle, and embellish
the truth-the more so, the more the individual is
actively involved in the processes of politics,
and particularly in those of international
politics. For only by deceiving himself about the
nature of politics and the role he plays on the
political scene is man able to live contentedly as
a political animal with himself and his fellow
men.
Thus it is inevitable that a theory which tries to
understand international politics as it actually
is and as it ought to be in view of its intrinsic
nature, rather than as people would like to see
it, must overcome a psychological resistance that
most other branches of learning need not face. A
book devoted to the theoretical understanding of
international politics therefore requires a
special explanation and justification. |
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