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Why We Will Soon Miss The Cold War-
Why We Will Soon Miss The Cold War
The conditions that have made for decades of peace
in the West are fast disappearing, as Europe
prepares to return to the multi-polar system that,
between 1648 and 1945, bred one destructive
conflict after another
by John J. Mearsheimer
Peace: it’s wonderful. I like it as much as the
next man, and have no wish to be willfully gloomy
at a moment when optimism about the future shape
of the world abounds. Nevertheless my thesis in
this essay is that we are likely soon to regret
the passing of the Cold War.
To be sure, no one will miss such by-products of
the Cold War as the Korean and Vietnam conflicts.
No one will want to replay the U-2 affair, the
Cuban missile crisis, or the building of the
Berlin Wall. And no one will want to revisit the
domestic Cold War, with its purges and loyalty
oaths, its xenophobia and stifling of dissent. We
will not wake up one day to discover fresh wisdom
in the collected fulminations of John Foster
Dulles.
We may, however, wake up one day lamenting the
loss of the order that the Cold War gave to the
anarchy of international relations. For untamed
anarchy is what Europe knew in the forty-five
years of this century before the Cold War, and
untamed anarchy--Hobbes’s war of all against
all--is a prime cause of armed conflict. Those who
think that armed conflicts among the European
states are now out of the question, that the two
world wars burned all the war out of Europe, are
projecting unwarranted optimism onto the future.
The theories of peace that implicitly undergird
this optimism are notably shallow constructs. They
stand up to neither logical nor historical
analysis. You would not want to bet the farm on
their prophetic accuracy.
The world is about to conduct a vast test of the
theories of war and peace put forward by social
scientists, who never dreamed that their ideas
would be tested by the world-historic events
announced almost daily in newspaper headlines.
This social scientist is willing to put his
theoretical cards on the table as he ventures
predictions about the future of Europe. In the
process, I hope to put alternative theories of war
and peace under as much intellectual pressure as I
can muster. My argument is that the prospect of
major crises, even wars, in Europe is likely to
increase dramatically now that the Cold War is
receding into history. The next forty-five years
in Europe are not likely to be so violent as the
forty-five years before the Cold War, but they are
likely to be substantially more violent than the
past forty-five years, the era that we may someday
look back upon not as the Cold War but as the Long
Peace, in John Lewis Gaddis’s phrase.
This pessimistic conclusion rests on the general
argument that the distribution and character of
military power among states are the root causes of
war and peace. Specifically, the peace in Europe
since 1945--precarious at first, but increasingly
robust over time--has flowed from three factors:
the bipolar distribution of military power on the
Continent; the rough military equality between the
polar powers, the United States and the Soviet
Union; and the ritualistically deplored fact that
each of these superpowers is armed with a large
nuclear arsenal.
We don’t yet know the entire shape of the new
Europe. But we do know some things. We know, for
example, that the new Europe will involve a return
to the multipolar distribution of power that
characterized the European state system from its
founding, with the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648,
until 1945. We know that this multipolar European
state system was plagued by war from first to
last. We know that from 1900 to 1945 some 50
million Europeans were killed in wars that were
caused in great part by the instability of this
state system. We also know that since 1945 only
some 15,000 Europeans have been killed in wars:
roughly 10,000 Hungarians and Russians, in what we
might call the Russo-Hungarian War of October and
November, 1956, and somewhere between 1,500 and
5,000 Greeks and Turks, in the July and August,
1974, war on Cyprus.
The point is clear: Europe is reverting to a state
system that created powerful incentives for
aggression in the past. If you believe (as the
Realist school of international-relations theory,
to which I belong, believes) that the prospects
for international peace are not markedly
influenced by the domestic political character of
states--that it is the character of the state
system, not the character of the individual units
composing it, that drives states toward war--then
it is difficult to share in the widespread elation
of the moment about the future of Europe. Last
year was repeatedly compared to 1789, the year the
French Revolution began, as the Year of Freedom,
and so it was. Forgotten in the general exaltation
was that the hope-filled events of 1789 signaled
the start of an era of war and conquest.
A "Hard" Theory of Peace
What caused the era of violence in Europe before
1945, and why has the postwar era, the period of
the Cold War, been so much more peaceful? The two
world wars before 1945 had myriad particular and
unrepeatable causes, but to the student of
international relations seeking to establish
generalizations about the behavior of states in
the past which might illuminate their behavior in
the future, two fundamental causes stand out.
These are the multipolar distribution of power in
Europe, and the imbalances of strength that often
developed among the great powers as they jostled
for supremacy or advantage.
There is something elementary about the geometry
of power in international relations, and so its
importance is easy to overlook. "Bipolarity" and
"multipolarity" are ungainly but necessary
coinages. The Cold War, with two superpowers
serving to anchor rival alliances of clearly
inferior powers, is our model of bipolarity.
Europe in 1914, with France, Germany, Great
Britain, Austria-Hungary, and Russia positioned as
great powers, is our model of multipolarity.
If the example of 1914 is convincing enough
evidence that multipolar systems are the more
dangerous geometry of power, then perhaps I should
rest my case. Alas for theoretical elegance, there
are no empirical studies providing conclusive
support for this proposition. From its beginnings
until 1945 the European state system was
multipolar, so this history is barren of
comparisons that would reveal the differing
effects of the two systems. Earlier history, to be
sure, does furnish scattered examples of bipolar
systems, including some--Athens and Sparta, Rome
and Carthage--that were warlike. But this history
is inconclusive, because it is incomplete. Lacking
a comprehensive survey of history, we can’t do
much more than offer examples--now on this, now on
that side of the debate. As a result, the case
made here rests chiefly on deduction.
Deductively, a bipolar system is more peaceful for
the simple reason that under it only two major
powers are in contention. Moreover those great
powers generally demand allegiance from minor
powers in the system, which is likely to produce
rigid alliance structures. The smaller states are
then secure from each other as well as from attack
by the rival great power. Consequently (to make a
Dick-and-Jane point with a well-worn
social-science term), a bipolar system has only
one dyad across which war might break out. A
multipolar system is much more fluid and has many
such dyads. Therefore, other things being equal,
war is statistically more likely in a multipolar
system than it is in a bipolar one. Admittedly,
wars in a multipolar world that involve only minor
powers or only one major power are not likely to
be as devastating as a conflict between two major
powers. But small wars always have the potential
to widen into big wars.
Also, deterrence is difficult to maintain in a
multipolar state system, because power imbalances
are commonplace, and when power asymmetries
develop, the strong become hard to deter. Two
great powers can join together to attack a third
state, as Germany and the Soviet Union did in
1939, when they ganged up on Poland. Furthermore,
a major power might simply bully a weaker power in
a one-on-one encounter, using its superior
strength to coerce or defeat the minor state.
Germany’s actions against Czechoslovakia in the
late 1930s provide a good example of this sort of
behavior. Ganging up and bullying are largely
unknown in a bipolar system, since with only two
great powers dominating center stage, it is
impossible to produce the power asymmetries that
result in ganging up and bullying.
There is a second reason that deterrence is more
problematic under multipolarity. The resolve of
opposing states and also the size and strength of
opposing coalitions are hard to calculate in this
geometry of power, because the shape of the
international order tends to remain in flux, owing
to the tendency of coalitions to gain and lose
partners. This can lead aggressors to conclude
falsely that they can coerce others by bluffing
war, or even achieve outright victory on the
battlefield. For example, Germany was not certain
before 1914 that Britain would oppose it if it
reached for Continental hegemony, and Germany
completely failed to foresee that the United
States would eventually move to contain it. In
1939 Germany hoped that France and Britain would
stand aside as it conquered Poland, and again
failed to foresee the eventual American entry into
the war. As a result, Germany exaggerated its
prospects for success, which undermined deterrence
by encouraging German adventurism.
The prospects for peace, however, are not simply a
function of the number of great powers in the
system. They are also affected by the relative
military strength of those major states. Bipolar
and multipolar systems both are likely to be more
peaceful when power is distributed equally in
them. Power inequalities invite war, because they
increase an aggressor’s prospects for victory on
the battlefield. Most of the general wars that
have tormented Europe over the past five centuries
have involved one particularly powerful state
against the other major powers in the system. This
pattern characterized the wars that grew from the
attempts at hegemony by Charles V, Philip II,
Louis XIV, Revolutionary and Napoleonic France,
Wilhelmine Germany, and Nazi Germany. Hence the
size of the gap in military power between the two
leading states in the system is a key determinant
of stability. Small gaps foster peace; larger gaps
promote war.
Nuclear weapons seem to be in almost everybody’s
bad book, but the fact is that they are a powerful
force for peace. Deterrence is most likely to hold
when the costs and risks of going to war are
unambiguously stark. The more horrible the
prospect of war, the less likely war is.
Deterrence is also more robust when conquest is
more difficult. Potential aggressor states are
given pause by the patent futility of attempts at
expansion.
Nuclear weapons favor peace on both counts. They
are weapons of mass destruction, and would produce
horrendous devastation if used in any numbers.
Moreover, they are more useful for self-defense
than for aggression. If both sides’ nuclear
arsenals are secure from attack, creating an
arrangement of mutual assured destruction, neither
side can employ these weapons to gain a meaningful
military advantage. International conflicts then
become tests of pure will. Who would dare to use
these weapons of unimaginable destructive power?
Defenders have the advantage here, because
defenders usually value their freedom more than
aggressors value new conquests.
Nuclear weapons further bolster peace by moving
power relations among states toward equality.
States that possess nuclear deterrents can stand
up to one another, even if their nuclear arsenals
vary greatly in size, as long as both sides have
an assured destruction capability. In addition,
mutual assured destruction helps alleviate the
vexed problem of miscalculation by leaving little
doubt about the relative power of states.
No discussion of the causes of peace in the
twentieth century would be complete without a word
on nationalism. With "nationalism" as a synonym
for "love of country" I have no quarrel. But
hypernationalism, the belief that other nations or
nation-states are both inferior and threatening,
is perhaps the single greatest domestic threat to
peace, although it is still not a leading force in
world politics. Hypernationalism arose in the past
among European states because most of them were
nation-states--states composed mainly of people
from a single ethnic group--that existed in an
anarchic world, under constant threat from other
states. In such a system people who love their own
nation can easily come to be contemptuous of the
nationalities inhabiting opposing states. The
problem is worsened when domestic elites demonize
a rival nation to drum up support for
national-security policy.
Hypernationalism finds its most fertile soil under
military systems relying on mass armies. These
require sacrifices to sustain, and the state is
tempted to appeal to nationalist sentiments to
mobilize its citizens to make them. The quickening
of hypernationalism is least likely when states
can rely on small professional armies, or on
complex high-technology military organizations
that operate without vast manpower. For this
reason, nuclear weapons work to dampen
nationalism, because they shift the basis of
military power away from mass armies and toward
smaller, high-technology organizations.
Hypernationalism declined sharply in Europe after
1945, not only because of the nuclear revolution
but also because the postwar occupation forces
kept it down. Moreover, the European states, no
longer providing their own security, lacked an
incentive to whip up nationalism to bolster public
support for national defense. But the decisive
change came in the shift of the prime locus of
European politics to the United States and the
Soviet Union--two states made up of peoples of
many different ethnic origins which had not
exhibited nationalism of the virulent type found
in Europe. This welcome absence of
hypernationalism has been further helped by the
greater stability of the postwar order. With less
expectation of war, neither superpower felt
compelled to mobilize its citizens for war.
Bipolarity, an equal balance of military power,
and nuclear weapons--these, then, are the key
elements of my explanation for the Long Peace.
Many thoughtful people have found the bipolar
system in Europe odious and have sought to end it
by dismantling the Soviet empire in Eastern Europe
and diminishing Soviet military power. Many have
also lamented the military equality obtaining
between the superpowers; some have decried the
indecisive stalemate it produced, recommending
instead a search for military superiority; others
have lamented the investment of hundreds of
billions of dollars to deter a war that never
happened, proving not that the investment, though
expensive, paid off, but rather that it was
wasted. As for nuclear weapons, well, they are a
certifiable Bad Thing. The odium attached to these
props of the postwar order has kept many in the
West from recognizing a hard truth: they have kept
the peace.
But so much for the past. What will keep the peace
in the future? Specifically, what new order is
likely to emerge if NATO and the Warsaw Pact
dissolve, which they will do if the Cold War is
really over, and the Soviets withdraw from Eastern
Europe and the Americans quit Western Europe,
taking their nuclear weapons with them--and should
we welcome or fear it?
One dimension of the new European order is
certain: it will be multipolar. Germany, France,
Britain, and perhaps Italy will assume major-power
status. The Soviet Union will decline from
superpower status, not only because its military
is sure to shrink in size but also because moving
forces out of Eastern Europe will make it more
difficult for the Soviets to project power onto
the Continent. They will, of course, remain a
major European power. The resulting four- or
five-power system will suffer the problems endemic
to multipolar systems--and will therefore be prone
to instability. The other two dimensions--the
distribution of power among the major states and
the distribution of nuclear weapons--are less
certain. Indeed, who gets nuclear weapons is
likely to be the most problematic question facing
the new Europe. Three scenarios of the nuclear
future in Europe are possible.
The "Europe Without Nuclear Weapons" Scenario
Many Europeans (and some Americans) seek to
eliminate nuclear weapons from Europe altogether.
Fashioning this nuclear-free Europe would require
that Britain, France, and the Soviet Union rid
themselves of these talismans of their
sovereignty--an improbable eventuality, to say the
least. Those who wish for it nevertheless believe
that it would be the most peaceful arrangement
possible. In fact a nuclear-free Europe has the
distinction of being the most dangerous among the
envisionable post-Cold War orders. The pacifying
effects of nuclear weapons--the caution they
generate, the security they provide, the rough
equality they impose, and the clarity of the
relative power they create--would be lost. Peace
would then depend on the other dimensions of the
new order--the number of poles and the
distribution of power among them. The geometry of
power in Europe would look much as it did between
the world wars--a design for tension, crisis, and
possibly even war.
The Soviet Union and a unified Germany would
likely be the most powerful states in a
nuclear-free Europe. A band of small independent
states in Eastern Europe would lie between them.
These minor Eastern European powers would be
likely to fear the Soviets as much as the Germans,
and thus would probably not be disposed to
cooperate with the Soviets to deter possible
German aggression. In fact, this very problem
arose in the 1930s, and the past forty-five years
of Soviet occupation have surely done little to
mitigate Eastern European fears of a Soviet
military presence. Thus scenarios in which Germany
uses force against Poland, Czechoslovakia, or even
Austria enter the realm of the possible in a
nuclear-free Europe.
Then, too, the Soviet withdrawal from Eastern
Europe hardly guarantees a permanent exit. Indeed,
the Russian presence in Eastern Europe has surged
and ebbed repeatedly over the past few centuries.
In a grave warning, a member of President Mikhail
Gorbachev’s negotiating team at the recent
Washington summit said, "You have the same
explosive mixture you had in Germany in the 1930s.
The humiliation of a great power. Economic
troubles. The rise of nationalism. You should not
underestimate the danger."
Conflicts between Eastern European states might
also threaten the stability of the new European
order. Serious tensions already exist between
Hungary and Romania over Romania’s treatment of
the Hungarian minority in Transylvania, a formerly
Hungarian region that still contains roughly two
million ethnic Hungarians. Absent the Soviet
occupation of Eastern Europe, Romania and Hungary
might have gone to war over this issue by now, and
it might bring them to war in the future. This is
not the only potential danger spot in Eastern
Europe as the Soviet empire crumbles. The
Polish-German border could be a source of trouble.
Poland and Czechoslovakia have a border dispute.
If the Soviets allow some of their republics to
achieve independence, the Poles and the Romanians
may lay claim to territory now in Soviet hands
which once belonged to them. Looking farther
south, civil war in Yugoslavia is a distinct
possibility. Yugoslavia and Albania might come to
blows over Kosovo, a region of Yugoslavia
harboring a nationalistic Albanian majority.
Bulgaria has its own quarrel with Yugoslavia over
Macedonia, while Turkey resents Bulgaria’s
treatment of its Turkish minority. The danger that
these bitter ethnic and border disputes will erupt
into war in a supposedly Edenic nuclear-free
Europe is enough to make one nostalgic for the
Cold War.
Warfare in Eastern Europe would cause great
suffering to Eastern Europeans. It also might
widen to include the major powers, especially if
disorder created fluid politics that offered
opportunities for expanded influence, or
threatened defeat for states friendly to one or
another of the major powers. During the Cold War
both superpowers were drawn into Third World
conflicts across the globe, often in distant areas
of little strategic importance. Eastern Europe is
directly adjacent to both the Soviet Union and
Germany, and it has considerable economic and
strategic importance. Thus trouble in Eastern
Europe would offer even greater temptations to
these powers than past conflicts in the Third
World offered to the superpowers. Furthermore,
Eastern European states would have a strong
incentive to drag the major powers into their
local conflicts, because the results of such
conflicts would be largely determined by the
relative success of each party in finding external
allies.
It is difficult to predict the precise balance of
conventional military power that will emerge in
post-Cold War Europe. The Soviet Union might
recover its strength soon after withdrawing from
Eastern Europe. In that case Soviet power would
outmatch German power. But centrifugal national
forces might pull the Soviet Union apart, leaving
no remnant state that is the equal of a unified
Germany. Finally, and probably most likely,
Germany and the Soviet Union might emerge as
powers of roughly equal strength. The first two
geometries of power, with their marked military
inequality between the two leading countries,
would be especially worrisome, although there
would be cause for concern even if Soviet and
German power were balanced.
A non-nuclear Europe, to round out this catalogue
of dangers, would likely be especially disturbed
by hypernationalism, since security in such an
order would rest on mass armies, which, as we have
seen, often cannot be maintained without a
mobilized public. The problem would probably be
most acute in Eastern Europe, with its uncertain
borders and irredentist minority groups. But there
is also potential for trouble in Germany. The
Germans have generally done an admirable job of
combating hypernationalism over the past
forty-five years, and of confronting the dark side
of their past. Nevertheless, a portent like the
recent call of some prominent Germans for a return
to greater nationalism in historical education is
disquieting.
For all these reasons, it is perhaps just as well
that a nuclear-free Europe, much as it may be
longed for by so many Europeans, does not appear
to be in the cards.
The "Current Ownership" Scenario
Under this scenario Britain, France, and the
Soviet Union retain their nuclear weapons, but no
new nuclear powers emerge in Europe. This vision
of a nuclear-free zone in Central Europe with
nuclear weapons remaining on the flanks of the
Continent, is also popular in Europe, but it, too,
has doubtful prospects.
Germany will prevent it over the long run. The
Germans are not likely to be willing to rely on
the Poles or the Czechs to provide their forward
defense against a possible direct Soviet
conventional attack on their homeland. Nor are the
Germans likely to trust the Soviet Union to
refrain for all time from nuclear blackmail
against a non-nuclear Germany. Hence they will
eventually look to nuclear weapons as the surest
means of security, just as NATO has done.
The small states of Eastern Europe will also have
strong incentives to acquire nuclear weapons.
Without them they would be open to nuclear
blackmail by the Soviet Union, or by Germany if
proliferation stopped them. Even if those major
powers did not have nuclear arsenals, no Eastern
European state could match German or Soviet
conventional strength.
Clearly, then, a scenario in which current
ownership continues, without proliferation, seems
very unlikely.
The "Nuclear Proliferation" Scenario
The most probable scenario in the wake of the Cold
War is further nuclear proliferation in Europe.
This outcome is laden with dangers, but it also
might just provide the best hope for maintaining
stability on the Continent. Everything depends on
how proliferation is managed. Mismanaged
proliferation could produce disaster; well-managed
proliferation could produce an order nearly as
stable as that of the Long Peace.
The dangers that could arise from mismanaged
proliferation are both profound and numerous.
There is the danger that the proliferation process
itself could give one of the existing nuclear
powers a strong incentive to stop a non-nuclear
neighbor from joining the club, much as Israel
used force to stop Iraq from acquiring a nuclear
capability. There is the danger that an unstable
nuclear competition would emerge among the new
nuclear states. They might lack the resources to
make their nuclear forces invulnerable, which
could create first-strike fears and incentives--a
recipe for disaster in a crisis. Finally, there is
the danger that by increasing the number of
fingers on the nuclear trigger, proliferation
would increase the risk that nuclear weapons would
be fired by accident or captured by terrorists or
used by madmen.
These and other dangers of proliferation can be
lessened if the current nuclear powers take the
right steps. To forestall preventive attacks, they
can extend security guarantees. To help the new
nuclear powers secure their deterrents, they can
provide technical assistance. And they can help to
socialize nascent nuclear societies to understand
the lethal character of the forces they are
acquiring. This kind of well-managed proliferation
could help bolster peace.
Proliferation should ideally stop with Germany. It
has a large economic base, and so could afford to
sustain a secure nuclear force. Moreover, Germany
would no doubt feel insecure without nuclear
weapons, and if it felt insecure its impressive
conventional strength would give it a significant
capacity to disturb the tranquillity of Europe.
But if the broader spread of nuclear weapons
proves impossible to prevent without taking
extreme steps, the current nuclear powers should
let proliferation occur in Eastern Europe while
doing all they can to channel it in safe
directions.
However, I am pessimistic that proliferation can
be well managed. The members of the nuclear club
are likely to resist proliferation, but they
cannot easily manage this tricky process while at
the same time resisting it--and they will have
several motives to resist. The established nuclear
powers will be exceedingly chary of helping the
new nuclear powers build secure deterrents, simply
because it goes against the grain of state
behavior to share military secrets with other
states. After all, knowledge of sensitive military
technology could be turned against the donor state
if that technology were passed on to adversaries.
Furthermore, proliferation in Europe will
undermine the legitimacy of the 1968 Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty, and this could open the
floodgates of proliferation worldwide. The current
nuclear powers will not want that to happen, and
so they will probably spend their energy trying to
thwart proliferation, rather than seeking to
manage it.
The best time for proliferation to occur would be
during a period of relative international calm.
Proliferation in the midst of a crisis would
obviously be dangerous, since states in conflict
with an emerging nuclear power would then have a
powerful incentive to interrupt the process by
force. However, the opposition to proliferation by
citizens of the potential nuclear powers would be
so vociferous, and the external resistance from
the nuclear club would be so great, that it might
take a crisis to make those powers willing to pay
the domestic and international costs of building a
nuclear force. All of which means that
proliferation is likely to occur under
international conditions that virtually ensure it
will be mismanaged.
Is War Obsolete?
Many students of European politics will reject my
pessimistic analysis of post-Cold War Europe. They
will say that a multipolar Europe, with or without
nuclear weapons, will be no less peaceful than the
present order. Three specific scenarios for a
peaceful future have been advanced, each of which
rests on a well-known theory of international
relations. However, each of these "soft" theories
of peace is flawed.
Under the first optimistic scenario, a non-nuclear
Europe would remain peaceful because Europeans
recognize that even a conventional war would be
horrific. Sobered by history, national leaders
will take care to avoid war. This scenario rests
on the "obsolescence of war" theory, which posits
that modern conventional war had become so deadly
by 1945 as to be unthinkable as an instrument of
statecraft. War is yesterday’s nightmare.
The fact that the Second World War occurred casts
doubt on this theory: if any war could have
persuaded Europeans to forswear conventional war,
it should have been the First World War, with its
vast casualties. The key flaw in this theory is
the assumption that all conventional wars will be
long and bloody wars of attrition. Proponents
ignore the evidence of several wars since 1945, as
well as several campaign-ending battles of the
Second World War, that it is still possible to
gain a quick and decisive victory on the
conventional battlefield and avoid the devastation
of a protracted conflict. Conventional wars can be
won rather cheaply; nuclear war cannot be, because
neither side can escape devastation by the other,
regardless of what happens on the battlefield.
Thus the incentives to avoid war are of another
order of intensity in a nuclear world than they
are in a conventional world.
There are several other flaws in this scenario.
There is no systematic evidence demonstrating that
Europeans believe war is obsolete. The Romanians
and the Hungarians don’t seem to have gotten the
message. However, even if it were widely believed
in Europe that war is no longer thinkable,
attitudes could change. Public opinion on
national-security issues is notoriously fickle and
responsive to manipulation by elites as well as to
changes in the international environment. An end
to the Cold War, as we have seen, will be
accompanied by a sea change in the geometry of
power in Europe, which will surely alter European
thinking about questions of war and peace. Is it
not possible, for example, that German thinking
about the benefits of controlling Eastern Europe
will change markedly once American forces are
withdrawn from Central Europe and the Germans are
left to provide for their own security? Is it not
possible that they would countenance a
conventional war against a substantially weaker
Eastern European state to enhance their position
vis-a-vis the Soviet Union? Finally, only one
country need decide that war is thinkable to make
war possible.
Is Prosperity the Path to Peace?
Proponents of the second optimistic scenario base
their optimism about the future of Europe on the
unified European market coming in 1992--the
realization of the dream of the European
Community. A strong EC, they argue, ensures that
the European economy will remain open and
prosperous, which will keep the European states
cooperating with one another. Prosperity will make
for peace. The threat of an aggressive Germany
will be removed by enclosing the newly unified
German state in the benign embrace of the EC. Even
Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union can eventually
be brought into the EC. Peace and prosperity will
then extend their sway from the Atlantic to the
Urals.
This scenario is based on the theory of economic
liberalism, which assumes that states are
primarily motivated by the desire to achieve
prosperity and that leaders place the material
welfare of their publics above all other
considerations, including security. Stability
flows not from military power but from the
creation of a liberal economic order.
A liberal economic order works in several ways to
enhance peace and dampen conflict. In the first
place, it requires significant political
cooperation to make the trading system work--make
states richer. The more prosperous states grow,
the greater their incentive for further political
cooperation. A benevolent spiral relationship sets
in between political cooperation and prosperity.
Second, a liberal economic order fosters economic
interdependence, a situation in which states are
mutually vulnerable in the economic realm. When
interdependence is high, the theory holds, there
is less temptation to cheat or behave aggressively
toward other states, because all states can
retaliate economically. Finally, some theorists
argue, an international institution like the EC
will, with ever-increasing political cooperation,
become so powerful that it will take on a life of
its own, eventually evolving into a superstate. In
short, Mrs. Thatcher’s presentiments about the EC
are absolutely right.
This theory has one grave flaw: the main
assumption underpinning it is wrong. States are
not primarily motivated by the desire to achieve
prosperity. Although economic calculations are
hardly trivial to them, states operate in both an
international political and an international
economic environment, and the former dominates the
latter when the two systems come into conflict.
Survival in an anarchic international political
system is the highest goal a state can have.
Proponents of economic liberalism largely ignore
the effects of anarchy on state behavior and
concentrate instead on economic motives. When this
omission is corrected, however, their arguments
collapse for two reasons.
Competition for security makes it difficult for
states to cooperate, which, according to the
theory of economic liberalism, they must do. When
security is scarce, states become more concerned
about relative than about absolute gains. They ask
of an exchange not "Will both of us gain?" but
"Who will gain more?" They reject even cooperation
that will yield an absolute economic gain if the
other state will gain more, from fear that the
other might convert its gain to military strength,
and then use this strength to win by coercion in
later rounds. Cooperation is much easier to
achieve if states worry only about absolute gains.
The goal, then, is simply to ensure that the
overall economic pie is expanding and that each
state is getting at least some part of the
increase. However, anarchy guarantees that
security will often be scarce; this heightens
states’ concerns about relative gains, which makes
cooperation difficult unless the pie can be finely
sliced to reflect, and thus not disturb, the
current balance of power.
Interdependence, moreover, is as likely to lead to
conflict as to cooperation, because states will
struggle to escape the vulnerability that
interdependence creates, in order to bolster their
national security. In time of crisis or war,
states that depend on others for critical economic
supplies will fear cutoff or blackmail; they may
well respond by trying to seize the source of
supply by force of arms. There are numerous
historical examples of states’ pursuing aggressive
military policies for the purpose of achieving
economic autarky. One thinks of both Japan and
Germany during the interwar period. And one
recalls that during the Arab oil embargo of the
early 1970s there was much talk in America about
using military force to seize Arab oil fields.
In twentieth-century Europe two periods saw
liberal economic order with high levels of
interdependence. According to the theory of
economic liberalism, stability should have
obtained during those periods. It did not.
The first case clearly contradicts the economic
liberals. The years from 1890 to 1914 were
probably the time of greatest economic
interdependence in Europe’s history. Yet those
years of prosperity were all the time making
hideously for the First World War.
The second case covers the Cold War years, during
which there has been much interdependence among
the EC states, and relations among them have been
very peaceful. This case, not surprisingly, is the
centerpiece of the economic liberals’ argument.
We certainly see a correlation in this period
between interdependence and stability but that
does not-mean that interdependence has caused
cooperation among the Western democracies. More
likely the Cold War was the prime cause of
cooperation among the Western democracies, and the
main reason that intra-EC relations have
flourished.
A powerful and potentially dangerous Soviet Union
forced the Western democracies to band together to
meet a common threat. This threat muted concerns
about relative gains arising from economic
cooperation among the EC states by giving each
Western democracy a vested interest in seeing its
alliance partners grow powerful. Each increment of
power helped deter the Soviets. Moreover, they all
had a powerful incentive to avoid conflict with
one another while the Soviet Union loomed to the
East, ready to harvest the grain of Western
quarrels.
In addition, America’s hegemonic position in NATO,
the military counterpart to the EC, mitigated the
effects of anarchy on the Western democracies and
induced cooperation among them. America not only
provided protection against the Soviet threat; it
also guaranteed that no EC state would aggress
against another. For example, France did not have
to fear Germany as it re-armed, because the
American presence in Germany meant that the
Germans were contained. With the United States
serving as a night watchman, fears about relative
gains among the Western European states were
mitigated, and furthermore, those states were
willing to allow their economies to become tightly
interdependent.
Take away the present Soviet threat to Western
Europe, send the American forces home, and
relations among the EC states will be
fundamentally altered. Without a common Soviet
threat or an American night watchman, Western
European states will do what they did for
centuries before the onset of the Cold War--look
upon one another with abiding suspicion.
Consequently, they will worry about imbalances in
gains and about the loss of autonomy that results
from cooperation. Cooperation in this new order
will be more difficult than it was during the Cold
War. Conflict will be more likely.
In sum, there are good reasons for being skeptical
about the claim that a more powerful EC can
provide the basis for peace in a multipolar
Europe.
Do Democracies Really Love Peace?
Under the third scenario war is avoided because
many European states have become democratic since
the early twentieth century, and liberal
democracies simply do not fight one another. At a
minimum, the presence of liberal democracies in
Western Europe renders that half of Europe free
from armed conflict. At a maximum, democracy
spreads to Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union,
bolstering peace. The idea that peace is cognate
with democracy is a vision of international
relations shared by both liberals and
neoconservatives.
This scenario rests on the "peace-loving
democracies" theory. Two arguments are made for
it.
First, some claim that authoritarian leaders are
more likely to go to war than leaders of
democracies, because authoritarian leaders are not
accountable to their publics, which carry the main
burdens of war. In a democracy the citizenry which
pays the price of war, has a greater say in what
the government does. The people, so the argument
goes, are more hesitant to start trouble, because
it is they who must pay the bloody price; hence
the greater their power, the fewer wars.
The second argument rests on the claim that the
citizens of liberal democracies respect popular
democratic rights--those of their countrymen, and
those of people in other states. They view
democratic governments as more legitimate than
others, and so are loath to impose a foreign
regime on a democratic state by force. Thus an
inhibition on war missing from other international
relationships is introduced when two democracies
face each other.
The first of these arguments is flawed because it
is not possible to sustain the claim that the
people in a democracy are especially sensitive to
the costs of war and therefore less willing than
authoritarian leaders to fight wars. In fact the
historical record shows that democracies are every
bit as likely to fight wars as are authoritarian
states, though admittedly, thus far, not with
other democracies.
Furthermore, mass publics, whether in a democracy
or not, can become deeply imbued with
nationalistic or religious fervor, making them
prone to support aggression and quite indifferent
to costs. The widespread public support in
post-Revolutionary France for Napoleon’s wars is
just one example of this phenomenon. At the same
time, authoritarian leaders are often fearful of
going to war, because war tends to unleash
democratic forces that can undermine the regime.
In short, war can impose high costs on
authoritarian leaders as well as on their
citizenry.
The second argument, which emphasizes the
transnational respect for democratic rights among
democracies, rests on a secondary factor that is
generally overridden by other factors such as
nationalism and religious fundamentalism.
Moreover, there is another problem with the
argument. The possibility always exists that a
democracy, especially the kind of fledgling
democracy emerging in Eastern Europe, will revert
to an authoritarian state. This threat of
backsliding means that one democratic state can
never be sure that another democratic state will
not turn on it sometime in the future. Liberal
democracies must therefore worry about relative
power among themselves, which is tantamount to
saying that each has an incentive to consider
aggression against another to forestall trouble.
Lamentably, it is not possible for even liberal
democracies to transcend anarchy.
Problems with the deductive logic aside, at first
glance the historical record seems to offer strong
support for the theory of peace-loving
democracies. It appears that no liberal
democracies have ever fought against each other.
Evidentiary problems, however, leave the issue in
doubt.
First, democracies have been few in number over
the past two centuries, and thus there have not
been many cases in which two democracies were in a
position to fight with each other. Three prominent
cases are usually cited: Britain and the United
States (1832 to the present); Britain and France
(1832-1849; 1871-1940); and the Western
democracies since 1945.
Second, there are other persuasive explanations
for why war did not occur in those three cases,
and these competing explanations must be ruled out
before the theory of peace-loving democracies can
be accepted. Whereas relations between the British
and the Americans during the nineteenth century
were hardly blissful, in the twentieth century
they have been quite harmonious, and thus fit
closely with the theory’s expectations. That
harmony, however, can easily be explained by
common threats that forced Britain and the United
States to work together--a serious German threat
in the first part of the century, and later a
Soviet threat. The same basic argument applies to
relations between France and Britain. Although
they were not on the best of terms during most of
the nineteenth century their relations improved
significantly around the turn of the century with
the rise of Germany. Finally, as noted above, the
Soviet threat goes far in explaining the absence
of war among the Western democracies since 1945.
Third, several democracies have come close to
fighting each other, suggesting that the absence
of war may be due simply to chance. France and
Britain approached war during the Fashoda crisis
of 1898. France and Weimar Germany might have come
to blows over the Rhineland during the 1920s. The
United States has clashed with a number of elected
governments in the Third World during the Cold
War, including the Allende regime in Chile and the
Arbenz regime in Guatemala.
Last, some would classify Wilhelmine Germany as a
democracy, or at least a quasi-democracy; if so,
the First World War becomes a war among
democracies.
While the spread of democracy across Europe has
great potential benefits for human rights, it will
not guarantee peaceful relations among the states
of post-Cold War Europe. Most Americans will find
this argument counterintuitive. They see the
United States as fundamentally peace-loving, and
they ascribe this peacefulness to its democratic
character. From this they generalize that
democracies are more peaceful than authoritarian
states, which leads them to conclude that the
complete democratization of Europe would largely
eliminate the threat of war. This view of
international politics is likely to be repudiated
by the events of coming years.
Missing the Cold War
The implications of my analysis are
straightforward, if paradoxical. Developments that
threaten to end the Cold War are dangerous. The
West has an interest in maintaining peace in
Europe. It therefore has an interest in
maintaining the Cold War order, and hence has an
interest in continuing the Cold War confrontation.
The Cold War antagonism could be continued at
lower levels of East-West tension than have
prevailed in the past, but a complete end to the
Cold War would create more problems than it would
solve.
The fate of the Cold War is mainly in the hands of
the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union is the only
superpower that can seriously threaten to overrun
Europe, and the Soviet threat provides the glue
that holds NATO together. Take away that offensive
threat and the United States is likely to abandon
the Continent; the defensive alliance it has
headed for forty years may well then disintegrate,
bringing an end to the bipolar order that has kept
the peace of Europe for the past forty-five years.
There is little the Americans or the West
Europeans can do to perpetuate the Cold War.
For one thing, domestic politics preclude it.
Western leaders obviously cannot base
national-security policy on the need to maintain
forces in Central Europe simply to keep the
Soviets there. The idea of deploying large numbers
of troops in order to bait the Soviets into an
order-keeping competition would be dismissed as
bizarre, and contrary to the general belief that
ending the Cold War and removing the Soviet yoke
from Eastern Europe would make the world safer and
better.
For another, the idea of propping up a declining
rival runs counter to the basic behavior of
states. States are principally concerned about
their relative power in the system--hence they
look for opportunities to take advantage of one
another. If anything, they prefer to see
adversaries decline, and invariably do whatever
they can to speed up the process and maximize the
distance of the fall. States, in other words, do
not ask which distribution of power best
facilitates stability and then do everything
possible to build or maintain such an order.
Instead, each pursues the narrower aim of
maximizing its power advantage over potential
adversaries. The particular international order
that results is simply a by-product of that
competition.
Consider, for example, the origins of the Cold War
order in Europe. No state intended to create it.
In fact the United States and the Soviet Union
each worked hard in the early years of the Cold
War to undermine the other’s position in Europe,
which would have ended the bipolar order on the
Continent. The remarkably stable system that
emerged in Europe in the late 1940s was the
unintended consequence of an intense competition
between the superpowers.
Moreover, even if the Americans and the West
Europeans wanted to help the Soviets maintain
their status as a superpower, it is not apparent
that they could do so. The Soviet Union is leaving
Eastern Europe and cutting its military forces
largely because its economy is floundering badly.
The Soviets don’t know how to fix their economy
themselves, and there is little that Western
governments can do to help them. The West can and
should avoid doing malicious mischief to the
Soviet economy, but at this juncture it is
difficult to see how the West can have a
significant positive influence.
The fact that the West cannot sustain the Cold War
does not mean that the United States should make
no attempt to preserve the current order. It
should do what it can to avert a complete mutual
withdrawal from Europe. For instance, the American
negotiating position at the
conventional-arms-control talks should aim toward
large mutual force reductions but should not
contemplate complete mutual withdrawal. The
Soviets may opt to withdraw all their forces
unilaterally anyway; if so, there is little the
United States can do to stop them.
Should complete Soviet withdrawal from Eastern
Europe prove unavoidable, the West would confront
the question of how to maintain peace in a
multipolar Europe. Three policy prescriptions are
in order.
First, the United States should encourage the
limited and carefully managed proliferation of
nuclear weapons in Europe. The best hope for
avoiding war in post-Cold War Europe is nuclear
deterrence; hence some nuclear proliferation is
necessary, to compensate for the withdrawal of the
Soviet and American nuclear arsenals from Central
Europe. Ideally, as I have argued, nuclear weapons
would spread to Germany but to no other state.
Second, Britain and the United States, as well as
the Continental states, will have to counter any
emerging aggressor actively and efficiently, in
order to offset the ganging up and bullying that
are sure to arise in post-Cold War Europe.
Balancing in a multipolar system, however, is
usually a problem-ridden enterprise, because of
either geography or the problems of coordination.
Britain and the United States, physically
separated from the Continent, may conclude that
they have little interest in what happens there.
That would be abandoning their responsibilities
and, more important, their interests. Both states
failed to counter Germany before the two world
wars, making war more likely. It is essential for
peace in Europe that they not repeat their past
mistakes.
Both states must maintain military forces that can
be deployed against Continental states that
threaten to start a war. To do this they must
persuade their citizens to support a policy of
continued Continental commitment. This will be
more difficult than it once was, because its
principal purpose will be to preserve peace,
rather than to prevent an imminent hegemony, and
the prevention of hegemony is a simpler goal to
explain publicly. Furthermore, this prescription
asks both countries to take on an unaccustomed
task, given that it is the basic nature of states
to focus on maximizing relative power, not on
bolstering stability. Nevertheless, the British
and the Americans have a real stake in peace,
especially since there is the risk that a European
war might involve the large-scale use of nuclear
weapons. Therefore, it should be possible for
their governments to lead their publics to
recognize this interest and support policies that
protect it.
The Soviet Union may eventually return to its past
expansionism and threaten to upset the status quo.
If so, we are back to the Cold War. However, if
the Soviets adhere to status-quo policies, Soviet
power could play a key role in countering Germany
and in maintaining order in Eastern Europe. It is
important in those cases where the Soviets are
acting in a balancing capacity that the United
States cooperate with its former adversary and not
let residual distrust from the Cold War obtrude.
Third, a concerted effort should be made to keep
hypernationalism at bay, especially in Eastern
Europe. Nationalism has been contained during the
Cold War, but it is likely to reemerge once Soviet
and American forces leave the heart of Europe. It
will be a force for trouble unless curbed. The
teaching of honest national history is especially
important, since the teaching of false, chauvinist
history is the main vehicle for spreading
hypernationalism. States that teach a dishonestly
self-exculpating or self-glorifying history should
be publicly criticized and sanctioned.
None of these tasks will be easy. In fact, I
expect that the bulk of my prescriptions will not
be followed; most run contrary to important
strains of domestic American and European opinion,
and to the basic nature of state behavior. And
even if they are followed, peace in Europe will
not be guaranteed. If the Cold War is truly behind
us, therefore, the stability of the past
forty-five years is not likely to be seen again in
the coming decades. |
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