第三,这些文献倾向于用一种渗透的方式把理论和政策联系起来。一般的(或基本的)国际关系理论看起来过于抽象,以至于不能直接地影响政策,尽管它也能提供一些基本的思维框架,对从事特定区域发展分析或从事实用的、“以议题为导向的问题” 分析的学者产生影响(Lepgold 2000, Wilson 2000)。这些后者的著作会对具体的政策难题分析有益,从而帮助推动就具体行动或决策而展开的辩论。从这种观点来看,通过强化联系这些不同活动之间的纽带,当前的鸿沟可以被缩小,如此一来,学术思想便可更容易地到达政策制订者的案头前。
决策可能受到几种类型知识的影响。首先,政策制订者总是依赖于纯事实性的知识(比如,对手的军队有多少?当前的贸易差额是多少?)。其次,决策者有时会利用“经验法则”(rules of thumb):根据经验而非系统研究去掌握简单的决策规则(Mearsheimer 1989)。[3]第三类是由分类学所构成的知识,它根据一些特定的属性将现象分门别类。政策制订者也可以依靠经验上的法则。经验法则是指通过系统探究被证明是可靠的、可观察到的两个或更多现象之间对应状况。这类法则(比如,“民主国家之间不打仗”,或者“人类更倾向于回避损失而不是收益”)可以成为有用的指导,即使我们不知道它们为何这样,或者即使我们对它们的解释是不正确的。
因此,需要做的事情是自觉地改变国际关系学科中盛行的规范。今天的职业激励结构阻碍了许多学者——尤其是年轻学者——从事政策相关性的努力,不过,确定这种结构的诸规范并不是神的旨意;它们是由这个学科本身的成员所集体决定的。学术共同体决定着什么是有价值的,没有理由认为政策相关性不能被提升到我们的集体评价中,与创新性、严谨性和经验上有效性的传统标准联系一起。这在实践上意味着什么呢?首先,学术系所在进行聘用和职称评定时,可以对现实世界的相关性研究及影响给予更大的权重。在评估应聘者或在考虑给予某人终身教职时,审核者和评估委员会可以考虑,一个学者的研究对解决现实世界难题做出了什么贡献。当然,政策相关性不会成为唯一的——甚至最重要的——评判标准,学者们仍然会被期望符合很高的学术标准。但是,给予现实世界相关性研究以更大的权重,这将更有可能使理论指向现实世界难题,并使理论以更易于理解的方式表现出来。“真的应该这样么,”詹特森(Jentleson)正确地质疑道,“一本由主要的大学出版社出版的书和(一本同行评审期刊上的)一两篇文章……就能够决定终身教职,但即使在大的商业出版社出版的书却不受重视,而在诸如《外交事务》之类期刊上发表的文章,所受关注则少得可怜?……争论的关键并不在于是否把观点文章或其他诸如此类的评论也算作出版成果,而在于需要拓宽评估的标准,以便更好地反映在知识上具有重要意义著述的类型和范围”(Jentleson 2000, p. 179)。更坦率地说:难道我们的学科真的要以很少有人在意我们所说的话而引以为荣么?
[14] 我想到了理查德·贝茨(Richard Betts)、约翰·斯坦布鲁纳、乔舒亚·爱普斯坦(Joshua Epstein)、布鲁斯·布莱尔(Bruce Blair)、包罗·斯塔尔斯(Paul B. Stares)、雷蒙·加索夫(Raymond Garthoff)、叶哈雅·莎多斯基(Yahya Sadowski)、威廉·昆特(William Quandt)以及其他许多人的著作。
[15] 一些同行评审刊物在这样做(比如《国际安全》和《安全研究》),但它还不是一种普遍的做法。
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在经历了长期割裂之后,国际政治与国际法这两大研究领域重现合作的势头。这一势头在全球化的背景下发酵、升温、扩展,生发出许多重要而有趣的命题。中国是一个正在和平崛起、对自身并对人类承担更多责任的发展中大国,中国的国际问题研究者理应适应国情和时代的要求,看重国际政治与国际法的综合性探索,努力发掘这一尚未开拓的“理论富矿”。