作为一项研究课题,“现实建构主义( realistconstructivism) ”一词最早得名于美国政治学会(American Political Science Association, APSA) 1998年年会的一个小组讨论, [1]但却因J1塞缪尔·巴尔金(J. Samuel Barkin) 2003年发表在《国际研究评论》( International Studies Review, ISR)上的《现实建构主义》[2]一文而广为学界所知。其实,早在巴尔金之前,有关现实主义与建构主义融合的各种搭桥( bridge - building)构想就已广泛见诸于大量国际关系经验研究。[3]当时,学界的普遍思路是考虑如何将现实主义的权力研究与建构主义的观念研究融入一个统一的分析框架内,以求更为全面、有效地解释各种具体经验问题。为此,针对特定经验事件,他们或者进行两种理论的竞争性测试;或者考量两种理论各自的适用范围,选择适合的理论解释适用的部分,共同组成完整解释;或者试图用一种理论涵括另外一种理论。[4] 这些研究成果的一个重大贡献就是阐明了现实主义与建构主义在很多方面是互补而不是截然对立的。但是,在两派融合的基础上能否发展出一种具有独立内核的国际关系理论新范式,却很少受到学界的认真关注和慎重思考。
直到巴尔金发表其《现实建构主义》一文,有关现实主义与建构主义融合的讨论才进入到一个激发思考建立全新理论范式的新阶段。作为回应, 2004年《国际研究评论》组织了一期专栏文章,试探性地讨论了“现实建构主义”成立之可能及其内涵。[5] 同年,帕特里克·T1杰克逊( Patrick T. Jackson)和丹尼尔·内克松(DanielNexon)以共同署名的方式向国际研究协会( ISA)年会和泛欧国际关系会议( the Pan - European Conference on International Relations)提交了与巴尔金针锋相对的“现实建构主义”构想。[6] 2005年,在乔治敦大学杰克逊和内克松的倡议下召开了由美国知名建构主义学者和现实主义学者参加的题为“现实主义与建构主义:从争论到对话”的学术恳谈会,试图进一步理清并推进“现实建构主义”的研究议程。[7]与此同时,中国学者秦亚青对这一理论动向也做出迅速回应,并同美国学者温特深入交换了对巴尔金“现实建构主义”的看法。[8] 2007年,布伦特·J1斯蒂尔(Brent J. Steele)发表在《国际研究评论》上的文章再度将理论关注和批判的焦点对准了巴尔金的“现实建构主义”, [9]而芬兰学者凯瑞·莫托拉(KariMÊttÊl¾)同年则在欧洲秩序战略研究中拥护并充分借鉴了巴尔金的“现实建构主义”概念。[10] 当前,“现实建构主义”作为一项研究课题正受到越来越多的关注, [11]其发展趋向也越来越朝向构建一种与自由建构主义( liberalconstructivism)相区别的国际关系理论新范式。
一什么是现实建构主义?———权力政治的社会建构还是社会事实的权力建构
近来,现实建构主义之所以能够成为一项新的理论创建议程,主要源于以下几点原因:
第一,学界普遍认识到,“建构主义不是一种国际政治理论”, [12]而是“一种适用于研究任何类型社会关系的方法,它具有自成一体的命题体系或理论架构,可以被应用于所有领域的社会研究尤其是国际关系研究”。[13]作为一种社会理论,其核心主张是:“人本质上是一个社会存在,人自身及其所生活的世界都是由社会关系所建构的。”[14]因此,建构主义本质上是一种指导我们从主体间( inter - subjective )社会关系的角度来考察国际政治的认识论和方法论假定。逻辑上,作为一种形而上的哲学立场,它可以和形而下的不同政治世界观相结合。
第二,不少学者认为,当前学界盛行的主流建构主义国际关系理论其实质是自由建构主义,即建构主义认识论与自由/理想主义世界观的复合。[15] 作为自由/理想主义的新变种( new variant) 、[16]新形式( updated form) , [17]建构主义集中关注和强调规范、说服以及跨国行为者对国际政治变革的正面积极作用,确信通过持久互动的社会化过程,人类社会最终走向和解和非暴力的可能性,而对诸如安全困境、权力均衡和军事竞争等社会现实却鲜有涉及,以至于常常被它的批评者们斥之为“威尔逊式自由乌托邦主义”[18]或“新康德理想主义”。[19]
一派学者认为,现实建构主义的实质是社会事实的权力建构。其立论的主要依据是:自由主义强调观念,现实主义强调权力,既然自由建构主义的核心命题是“观念无所不在( ideas all the way down) ”,观念建构一切;那么与之相对应,现实建构主义要成为独立的理论视角,其核心命题就必然是“权力无所不在”,权力内嵌于社会建构的一切过程之中。因此,现实建构主义的核心议程是,“聚焦不同的权力形式(权威、武力、情感等)如何通过不同的表达方式(语言、象征、物质等)生产不同的社会事实”, [22]就像自由建构主义集中关注不同的规范与观念形式如何通过不同的社会化路径建构不同的社会现实一样。
在国际政治的权力建构这一点上,巴尔金一再批评贾尼丝·B1马特恩(Janice B. Mattern)泛化了“权力”概念使之近乎无所不包,同时又误读了“社会建构”之原初内涵,但二人对现实建构主义的勾勒并无本质区别,因为巴尔金本人也一再坚称:现实建构主义区别于现实主义和自由建构主义的核心特征是“权力的生产性”,即“权力不仅潜在地决定究竟哪一种社会结构将战胜其他的社会结构,而且更为重要的是,权力将首先生产它本身在其中得以运行的社会结构”。[23]
古典现实主义的回答是,人类之间的相互为战或源自人性本恶、或源自人类本能的权力欲望。[52]“本性胜于进程(Nature trump s p rocess) ”, [53]无论人们之间通过互动建立起多大程度的相互理解,都无法消除这种人性固有的缺陷。而结构现实主义则认为,体系压力要远胜于观念考虑。主权之上无最高权威使得体系必然成为自助体系,而他者意图的不确定性与进攻性军事能力的偶合则进一步加剧了国家生存的危险性。结果,没有一个国家愿冒生存之虞而利他,每个国家都相信只有追逐权力才能确保政治之生存,无论何种类型的规范与观念,也无论它们具有多强的说服力和吸引力,都无法根除国家生存之恐惧。概言之,结构现实主义强调延续性而非变革性,以至于时常被批评为结构静态理论。[54]与现实主义相对,自由/理想主义则从人性本善出发,认为人类天生就有逃避冲突、崇尚合作之愿望,通过精心设计的制度约束和持续不断的规范说教,人性中所深藏的合作理性( reason of cooperation)迟早会得到启蒙,无政府状态必然会被新的人类组织形式所取代。从某种意义上来讲,自由/理想主义同样是一种相信本性或结构优先于过程的静态理论。
现实建构主义则强烈反对这种“乌托邦”式的人类共同体( human community)或人类团结( globalsolidarity)想象,其依据是哲学上所盛行的特殊主义立场。[66]这一立场指出,“所谓的‘普遍人性’绝不可能使我们所有人成为一个单一共同体的成员,人性的本质特征是特殊主义”。[67] 尽管两个敌对国家的公民个体之间可以成为很好的朋友,但人类政治的本质不是自由主义所想象的个体间政治而是群体间政治,生存竞争总是持久地存在于作为总体而不是个体的人之间。在这样的一个世界上,无政府状态总是内生于生存意义上的敌友划分。[68] 因此,任何一个群体认同的形成都必然是排他性和单向性的。群体认同的形成无须来自自我和他者之间的相互承认,重要的是自我将他者集体性地理解为邪恶和恐怖的象征,从而通过贬抑、排斥他者并将他者标定为“敌人”或“对手”而使自我身份获得确立。在此意义上,自我与他者并不共享平等生存之权利,他者总是被想象为对自我生存方式和信仰体系的潜在威胁;反之,对他者而言,自我亦是如此。现实建构主义认为,一旦这种敌对的身份被相互确立,自我与他者之间的冲突对抗便会极易产生并被不断物化( reification) 。对亨廷顿而言,一旦陷入,这种因排他性身份建构而产生的群体间冲突,不仅难以摆脱而且兼具进化性质:先是文明断裂带( cultural faultlines)之间的冲突,然后蔓延至由核心国家所主导的文明之间的冲突, 最后发展成为“亲缘文明集团( kin - cultural group) ”之间的战争。[69]而对于施米特和墨菲(ChantalMouffe)而言,由自由建构主义者所想象的包含所有人在内的单一朋友身份和世界国家则永远不可能实现。[70] 因为“任何一个政治实体之存在,都必须依赖于它具有决断谁是其朋友、谁是其敌人之能力和意愿,一旦这个政治实体没有能力或不愿意做此决断,那么其生存便会陷入危险之中”。[71] 因此,任何一个关注政治生存之实体都必然预设他者为“敌人”。只要人类还以群分, [72]敌对的他者就总会存在;即使消灭了外部他者,内部他者( internal other)也会不断浮现。人类也许可以凭借武力形成一个囊括所有人在内的世界国家或人类共同体,但届时很有可能不是自由/理想主义所描述的世界和平而是世界内战(world civilwar)状态。[73]
四 结论
综上所述,围绕诸如身份如何被建构、规范如何被社会化、国际政治最终朝着何种方向演化以及谁是国际关系的关键施动者等一系列“有关国际政治如何运行”的规范性问题,建构主义研究纲领可以分化为相互竞争的两种理论范式:自由建构主义与现实建构主义。自由建构主义与现实建构主义均强调国际政治的社会建构性,推崇以动态的身份认同作为国际关系研究的起点假定,但二者之间的不同之处也是显而易见的。自由建构主义根源于自由/理想主义的普世哲学,主张国际政治归根结底是人与人之间的关系,集体认同的形成无须预设一个外部他者为敌人,通过高密度的社会互动和合作性规范的社会化效应,人类社会存在朝向合作进步并最终实现“去政治化( de - politicalization) ”之可能;而现实建构主义则承自具有现实主义传统的特殊主义哲学,主张国际政治的本质乃群体间之竞争,因此群体身份之确立必然依赖于政治上的排他性,社会化效应既导致合作性规范的扩散和内化,也导致冲突性规范的扩散和内化,这是我们必须加以警惕的。
[1]Panel on“Realist Constructivism, Constructivist Realism?”American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Boston, September 1998.
[2]J. Samuel Barkin, “Realist Constructivism, ”International S tudies Review,Vol. 5,No. 3, 2003, pp. 325 - 342.
[3]相关论述可参见MichaelWinnerstig,“Shared Values or Power Politics? Transatlantic Security Relations 1981 - 1994, ”Research Report N o. 26, Stockholm: Swedish Institute for International Affairs, 1996; Andreas Gofas,“Structure, Agency and Inter - subjectivity: Re - cap turing the EMU Policy Process in a Constructivist Realist Framework, ”Paper p repared for the 2ndWorkshop of the European Political - Economy Infrastructure Consortium, May 2002; Henry Nau, A t Hom e Abroad: Identity and Power in Am erican Foreign Policy, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002; Jennifer Sterling - Folker, Theories of International Cooperation and the Prim acy of Anarchy: Explaining U. S. InternationalM onetary Policy - M aking af terB retton Woods, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002。
[4]详细论述可参见Joseph Jup ille, James Caporaso and Jeffery T. Checkel,“Integrating Institutions: Rationalism, Constructivism, and the Study of the European Union, ”Com parative Political S tudies, Vol. 36, No. 1 - 2, 2003, pp. 7 - 40。
[5]“Bridging the Gap: Toward a Realist - ConstructivistDialogue, ” International S tudies Review, Vol. 6,No. 2, 2004, pp. 337 - 352.
[6]Patrick T. Jackson and Daniel Nexon, “Paradigmatic Faults: Why the Divisions in International Relations Aren’t All They’re Cracked up to Be, ”Paper p resented at the AnnualMeeting of the International Studies Association, Montreal: March 17, 2004, http: / /www. allacademic. com / meta /p73575_index. html.
[7]Alexander Wendt, Patrick T. Jackson and Daniel Nexon,“Realism and Constructivism: From Debate to Dialogue, ”Conference on Realist and Constructivist International Relations Theory at theMershon Center for International Security Studies, Ap ril 30, 2005, http: / / hdl. handle. net/ 1811 /30217.
[9]Brent J. Steele,“Liberal - Idealism: A Constructivist Critique, ” International S tudies Review,Vol. 9,No. 1, 2007, pp. 23 - 52.
[10]KariMÊttÊl¾ ,“The EuropeanUnion as a Critic of the International Order: The Power of a Normative Power, ”Paper submitted on International Studies Association ( ISA) Annual Convention, Chicago, February 28, 2007, http: / /www. allacademic. com /meta /p180536_index. html.
[11]典型的例子就是以“现实建构主义”为分析框架或核心概念的 博士论文和硕士论文日益增多。譬如,Michael Alan Brittingham, “Reactive Nationalism and Its Prospects for Conflict: The Taiwan Issue, Sino - US Relations, and the‘Role’ofNationalism in Chinese Foreign Policy, ”Submitted to the Graduate Faculty ofArts and Sciences in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Pittsburgh, 2005, http: / / etd. library. pitt. edu /ETD / available/ etd - 12082005 - 132259 /; Yang Cai,“High Tension withoutWar: Interpreting Taiwan Strait Relations from 1990 to 2005, ”Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree ofMaster of Arts in the College of Arts and Sciences, Georgia State University, 2005, http: / / etd. gsu. edu / theses/ available/ etd - 11182005 - 221708 / unrestricted / cai_yang_200512_ma. pdf。
[12]AlexanderWendt, Social Theory of International Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 7.
[14]Nicholas G. Onuf,“A ConstructivistManifesto, ”in Kurt Burch and Robert A. Denemark, eds. , Constructing International Political Econom y, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997, pp. 7 - 17.
[15]详细总结可参见J. Samuel Barkin,“Realist Constructivism, ” pp. 332 - 336。
[16]Colin Hay,“Constructivist Institutionalism: Or, Why Interests into IdeasDon’t Go, ”Paper p resented at the AnnualMeeting of the American Political Science Association, Marriott, Philadelphia: August 31, 2006, http: / /www. asu. edu / clas/polisci/ cqrm /APSA2006 /Hay _ Constructivism. pdf.
[17]StephenM. Walt,“International Relations: OneWorld, Many Theories, ”Foreign Policy,No. 110, Sp ring 1998, pp. 29 - 32.
[18]Brent Steele,“Utop ian Dreams: Some Much - Needed Constructivist Distinctionswith Liberal - Utop ianism, ”Paper p resented at the annualmeeting of the International Studies Association, Hilton Hawaiian Village, Honolulu: March 5, 2005. http: / /www. allacademic. com /meta /p69695_index. html.
[19]Bruce Russett,“A Neo - Kantian Perspective on Democracy, Interdependence and International Organizations in Building Security Communities, ”in EmmanuelAdler andMichael Barnett, eds. , Security Communities, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 368 - 394.
[20]详细论述参见Jennifer Sterling - Folker,“Realism and the Constructivist Challenge: Rejecting, Reconstructing or Rereading, ”International S tudies Review,Vol. 4,No. 1, 2002, pp. 73 - 97; J. Samuel Barkin,“Realist Constructivism, ”pp. 329 - 332; Richard Ned Lebow, “Thucydides the Constructivist, ”Am erican Political Science Review, Vol. 95,No. 3, 2001, pp. 547 - 560。
[21]J. Samuel Barkin,“Realist Constructivism, ”p. 332.
[22]Janice B. Mattern, “Power in Realist - Constructivism Research, ”International S tudies Review,Vol. 6,No. 2, pp. 343 - 346.
[23]J. Samuel Barkin,“Realist Constructivism and Realist - Constructivisms, ”International S tudies Review,Vol. 6,No. 2, 2004, p. 351.
[24]例如, Patrick T. Jackson and Daniel H. Nexon,“Constructivist Realism or Realist - Constructivism?”International S tudies Review, Vol. 6,No. 2, 2004, pp. 337 - 341。
[25]DanielNexon and Patrick Jackson,“Paradigmatic Faults: Why the Divisions between ‘Schools’of IR Theory Aren ’t All They’re Cracked up to Be, ”2004.
[26]Patrick T. Jackson and Daniel H. Nexon,“Constructivist Realism or Realist - Constructivism?”p. 338.
[27]相关论述参见Patrick T. Jackson,“Relational Constructivism: A War ofWords, ”in Jennifer Sterling - Folker, ed. , M aking Sense of International Relations Theory, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2005, pp. 139 - 155; Michael C. Williams, The Realist Tradition and the L im its of International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005。
[28]Michael C. Williams,“Why IdeasMatter in International Relations: HansMorgenthau Classical Realism and the Moral Construction of Power, ”International O rganization, Vol. 58, No. 4, 2004, pp. 633 - 665.
[29]拥护这一主张的学者认为,现实建构主义应当恪守建构主 义的基本信条,并往往引用如下经典文献,以佐证建构主义旨在强调 国际政治的社会建构性。例如,AlexanderWendt, Social Theory of International Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999 ; AlexanderWendt,“ Anarchy IsWhat StatesMake of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics, ”International O rganization, Vol. 46, No. 2, 1992; Ted Hopf, Social Construction of International Politics: Identities and Foreign Policies, M oscow, 1955 and 1999, Ithaca: CornellUniversity Press, 2002。
[30]J. Samue Barkin,“Realist Constructivism and Realist - Constructivisms, ”p. 351; Janice B. Mattern,“Power in Realist - Constructivism Research, ”p. 343.
[31]系统总结可见: Brent Steele,“The Reflexive Realists, ”Paper p resented at the AnnualMeeting of the International Studies Association 48 th Annual Convention, Chicago, February 28, 2007, http: / /www. bisa. ac. uk /2006 /pp s/ steele. pdf; Brent Steele,“Eavesdropp ing on Honored Ghosts’: From Classical to Reflexive Realism, ”Journal of International Relations and Developm ent, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2007, pp. 272 - 300; Rodney Bruce Hall,“MoralAuthority as a Power Resource, ”InternationalO rganization, Vol. 51,No. 4, 1997, pp. 591 - 622; William Bain,“Deconfusing Morgenthau: Moral Inquiry and Classical Realism Reconsidered, ”Review of International S tudies, Vol. 26,No. 3, 2000, pp. 445 - 464。
[32]Jennifer Serling - Folker,“Realist - Constructivism andMorality, ” International S tudies Review ,Vol. 6,No. 2, 2004, pp. 341 - 343.
[34]有关自由建构主义的相关论述可参见Thomas Risse - Kappen,“Collective Identity in a Democratic Community: The Case of NATO, ”in Peter J. Katzenstein, ed. , The Culture of N ational Security: N orm s and Identity in W orld Politics, New York: Columbia University Press, 1996, pp. 357 - 399; Jeffrey T. Checkel,“The Constructivist Turn in International Relations Theory, ”W orld Politics, Vol. 50, No. 2, 1998, pp. 324 - 348。
[35]J. Samuel Barkin,“Realist Constructivism, ”p. 332.
[37]Andrew T. F. Lang, “Reconstructing Embedded Liberalism: John Gerard Ruggie and ConstructivistApp roaches to the Study of the International Trade Regime, ”Journal of International Econom ic Law, Vol. 9,No. 1, 2006, pp. 81 - 116.
[38]Tim Dunne, Inventing International Society: A History of the English School, London: Macmillan Press Ltd. , 1998; Alexander Wendt,“Anarchy IsWhat StatesMake of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics, ”pp. 391 - 425.
[39]Richard Thomp son Ford,“Political Identity as Identity Politics, ”Unbound: Harvard Journal of the Legal Left, Vol. 1, No. 53, 2005, p. 53.
[40]Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 27.
[41]AlexanderWendt, Social Theory of International Politics, pp. 92 - 138.
[42]AlexanderWendt, Social Theory of International Politics, 1999.
[43]Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, 1996.
[44]在这里,本文区别自由主义者所使用的“包容性集体认同 ( inclusion - based collective identity) ”和现实建构主义者所使用的 “排他性群体认同( exclusion - based group identity) ”。
[45]在此意义上,一些建构主义学者的作品被学界称为“规则建 构主义”或“规范建构主义”。诸如: Nicholas J. Onuf, W orld of Our M aking: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International Relations, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989; Friedrich Kratochwil, Rules, N orm s and Decisions: On the Conditions of Practical and Legal Reasoning in International Relations and Dom estic Society, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989。
[46]Brent Steele,“Utop ian Dreams: Some Much - Needed Constructivist Distinctions with Liberal - Utop ianism, ”http: / /www. allacademic. com /meta /p69695_index. html.
[47]Zaki LaÇd i,“Are European Preferences Shared by Others? ” Speech given at the Conference Sponsored by CER I, June 24, 2006, http: / /www. garnet - eu. org/ fileadmin /documents/ events/5. 1. 1% 20Conference%20Programme. pdf.
[48]克里斯琴·罗斯·斯密特认为, 建构主义内部的各种争论 主要是围绕规范性问题、分析层次和方法论三个轴心维度展开,其中 在规范性维度上可大致区分为社会学制度主义者、哈贝马斯式沟通 行动理论家和福柯式系谱学家等三个派别(Christian Reus - Smit, “ Imagining Society: Constructivism and the English School, ”B ritish Journal of Politics and International Relations, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2002, pp. 487 - 509) 。帕特里克·杰克逊和丹尼尔·内克松则更为明确地指 出,现实建构主义和自由建构主义之区分乃是持两种不同政治立场 的建构主义之区分。自由建构主义秉持哈贝马斯的政治哲学观点, 相信在“理想话语条件”下,权力政治最终能为行为体之间的沟通行 动所取代;而现实建构主义则坚持一种福柯立场,认为即使是在理想 话语条件下,某些权力仍然是不可超越的( Patrick T. Jackson and Daniel H. Nexon, “Constructivist Realism or Realist - Constructivism? ” pp. 340 - 341) 。受惠于上述理论观点,本文提出如果以不同导向的 社会化理论为基准,作为划分现实建构主义与自由建构主义之标准, 应该更能彰显二者之差别。
[49]相关经典论述可参见: JonathanMercer,“Anarchy and Identity, ”International O rganization, Vol. 49,No. 2, 1995, pp. 229 - 252; Jennifer Sterling - Folker,“Realism and the Constructivist Challenge: Rejecting, Reconstructing or Rereading, ”International S tudies Review , Vol. 4, No. 1, 2002, pp. 73 - 97; JohanM. G. van derDennen, “Ethnocentrism and In - group /Out - group Differentiation: A Review and Interp retation of the Literature, ”in V. Reynolds, ed. , The Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism , Athens: University of Georgia, 1987, pp. 1 - 47。
[50]总结于Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, 1996; Chantal Mouffe, The Return of the Political, London: Verso, 1993。
[51]例如温特的“世界国家”理论。Alexander Wendt,“Why a World State Is Inevitable: Teleology and the Logic ofAnarchy, ”European Journal of International Relations, Vol19, No14, 2003, pp. 491 - 542。
[52]John J. Mearsheimer,“A Realist Rep ly, ”International Security, Vol. 20,No. 1, 1995, pp. 82 - 93.
[53]Jennifer Sterling - Folker, “Realism and the Constructivist Challenge: Rejecting, Reconstructing or Rereading, ”p. 76.
[54]有关结构现实主义是静态理论和结构理论的批评和指责, 参见John Gerard Ruggie,“Continuity and Transformation in the World Polity: Toward a Neorealist Synthesis, ”W orld Politics, Vol. 35, No. 2, 1983, pp. 261 - 285; R. B. J. Walker,“Realism, Change, and International Political Theory, ”International S tudies Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1987, pp. 65 - 86; Robert Jervis,“Realism in the Study ofWorld Politics, ”International O rganization, Vol. 52, No. 4, 1998, pp. 971 - 991; Dale Copeland,“The Constructivist Challenge to Structural Realism: A Review Essay, ”International Security, Vol. 25, No. 2, 2000, pp. 187 - 212。
[55]总结于Jennifer Sterling - Folker,“Realism and the Constructivist Challenge: Rejecting, Reconstructing or Rereading, ”pp. 73 - 97; Rodney Hall,“Human Nature as Behavior and Action in Economics and International Relations Theory, ”Journal of International Relations and Developm ent,Vol. 9,No. 3, 2006, pp. 269 - 287。
[56]Asash Abizadeh,“Does Collective Identity Presuppose an Other? On the Alleged Incoherence of Global Solidarity, ”Am erican Political Science Review, Vol. 99,No. 1, 2005, p. 54.
[57]如以新现实主义和新自由主义为代表的美国国际关系理 论,参见Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics, New York: McGraw - Hill, 1979; Robert Keohane, After Hegem ony: Cooperation and D iscord in theW orld Political Econom y, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984。
[58]如英国学派和欧洲一体化理论者,参见Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A S tudy of O rder in W orld Politics, London:Macmillan, 1977; Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, eds. , The Expansion of International Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984; Barry Buzan, From International to W orld Society? English School Theory and the Social S tructure of Globalization, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004。
[59]AlexanderWendt,“Anarchy IsWhat StatesMake of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics, ”pp. 391 - 425.
[60]Tim Dunne, Inventing International Society: A History of the English School, 1998.
[61]Christian Reus - Smit,“Imagining Society: Constructivism and the English School, ”B ritish Journal of Politics and International Relations,Vol. 4,No. 3, 2002, pp. 487 - 509.
[62]AlexanderWendt,“Anarchy IsWhat StatesMake of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics, ”p. 394.
[63]温特指出,无政府状态可以因“敌人”、“对手”和“朋友”三种 不同身份关系而相应获得霍布斯、洛克和康德三种文化含义。参见 AlexanderWendt, Social Theory of International Politics, pp. 246 - 312。
[64]AlexanderWendt, Social Theory of International Politics, p. 106.
[65]AlexanderWendt,“Why aWorld State Is Inevitable: Teleology and the Logic ofAnarchy, ”pp. 491 - 542.
[66]关于这一立场的经典讨论及其在国际关系理论中的应用总 结,可参见Asash Abizadeh,“Does Collective Identity Presuppose an Other? On the Alleged Incoherence of Global Solidarity, ”pp. 45 - 60。
[67]MichaelWalzer,“The New Tribalism: Notes on a Difficult Problem, ”D issent, Vol. 39,No. 2, 1992, p. 171.
[68]Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, pp. 23 - 58.
[69]Samuel P. Huntington,“The Clash of Civilizations?”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72,No. 3, 1993, pp. 22 - 49.
[70]Asash Abizadeh,“Does Collective Identity Presuppose an Other? On the Alleged Incoherence of Global Solidarity, ”pp. 50 - 58.
[71]Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, p. 49.
[72]乔纳森·墨瑟指出,国际关系体系之所以呈现为自助状态, 主要不是因为结构或人类的权力欲望所致,而是因为人类天生就有 划分群体并渴望得到承认和尊重的社会心理需求所致。参见JonathanMercer,“Anarchy and Identity, ”pp. 241 - 242。
[73]总结自Mika Ojakangas,“A Terrifying WorldWithout and Exterior: Carl Schmitt and theMetaphysics of International (Dis)Order, ”in Louiza Odysseos and Fabio Petito, eds. , The International Political Thought of Carl Schm itt: Terror, L iberalW ar and the Crisis of GlobalO rder, London: Routledge, 2007, pp. 205 - 221。