冷战起源基础材料汇总贴

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  Cold war

The open yet restricted rivalry that developed after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. The term was first used by the American financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch during a congressional debate in 1947.
Following the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945 near the close of World War II, the uneasy wartime alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other began to unravel. By 1948 the Soviets had installed left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army. The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of western Europe. The Soviets, on the other hand, were determined to maintain control of eastern Europe in order to safeguard against any possible renewed threat from Germany, and they were intent on spreading communism worldwide, largely for ideological reasons. The Cold War had solidified by 1947–48, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe.
The Cold War reached its peak in 1948–53. In this period the Soviets unsuccessfully blockaded the Western-held sectors of West Berlin (1948–49); the United States and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a unified military command to resist the Soviet presence in Europe (1949); the Soviets exploded their first atomic warhead (1949), thus ending the American monopoly on the atomic bomb; the Chinese communists came to power in mainland China (1949); and the Soviet-supported communist government of North Korea invaded U.S.-supported South Korea in 1950, setting off an indecisive Korean War that lasted until 1953.
From 1953 to 1957 Cold War tensions relaxed somewhat, largely owing to the death of the longtime Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin in 1953; nevertheless, the standoff remained. A unified military organization among the Soviet-bloc countries, the Warsaw Pact, was formed in 1955; and West Germany was admitted into NATO that same year. Another intense stage of the Cold War was in 1958–62. The United States and the Soviet Union began developing intercontinental ballistic missiles, and in 1962 the Soviets began secretly installing missiles in Cuba that could be used to launch nuclear attacks on U.S. cities. This sparked the Cuban missile crisis (1962), a confrontation that brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles.
The Cuban missile crisis showed that neither the United States nor the Soviet Union were ready to use nuclear weapons for fear of the other's retaliation (and thus of mutual atomic annihilation). The two superpowers soon signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. But the crisis also hardened the Soviets' determination never again to be humiliated by their military inferiority, and they began a buildup of both conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years.
Throughout the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct military confrontation in Europe and engaged in actual combat operations only to keep allies from defecting to the other side or to overthrow them after they had done so. Thus the Soviet Union sent troops to preserve communist rule in East Germany (1953), Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968), and Afghanistan (1979). For its part, the United States helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954), supported an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba (1961), invaded the Dominican Republic (1965) and Grenada (1983), and undertook a long (1964–75) and unsuccessful effort to prevent communist North Vietnam from bringing South Vietnam under its rule.
In the course of the 1960s and '70s, however, the bipolar struggle between the Soviet and American blocs gave way to a more complicated pattern of international relationships in which the world was no longer split into two clearly opposed blocs. A major split had occurred between the Soviet Union and China in 1960 and widened over the years, shattering the unity of the communist bloc. In the meantime, western Europe and Japan achieved dynamic economic growth in the 1950s and '60s, reducing their relative inferiority to the United States. Less-powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to superpower coercion or cajoling.
The 1970s saw an easing of Cold War tensions as evinced in the SALT I and II agreements of 1972 and 1979 respectively, in which the two superpowers set limits on their antiballistic missiles and on their strategic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons. This was followed by a period of renewed Cold War tensions in the early 1980s as the two superpowers continued their massive arms buildup and competed for influence in the Third World. But the Cold War began to break down in the late 1980s during the administration of Soviet leader Mikhail S. Gorbachev. He dismantled the totalitarian aspects of the Soviet system and began efforts to democratize the Soviet political system. When communist regimes in the Soviet-bloc countries of eastern Europe collapsed in 1989–90, Gorbachev acquiesced in their fall. The rise to power of democratic governments in East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia was quickly followed by the unification of West and East Germany under NATO auspices, again with Soviet approval.
Gorbachev's internal reforms had meanwhile weakened his own Communist Party and allowed power to shift to Russia and the other constituent republics of the Soviet Union. In late 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed and 15 newly independent nations were born from its corpse, including a Russia with a democratically elected, anticommunist leader. The Cold War had come to an end.

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[s:8] 这些材料还真够好的

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关于以上材料的说明：
   以冷战起源的原因为核心收集的相关名望解释，中文主要来自中国大百科全书的《世界历史》、《政治学》卷，英文主要来自大英百科全书2007版。其中一些是比较边缘的仅供参考，大部分还是比较基础的材料。关于美国的麦卡锡主义和赤色恐慌我觉得应该着重一下。但在苏联的国内因素问题上资料还有待于进一步搜集，欢迎各位把手头有的相关材料也跟贴上来！

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苏美英法分区占领德国Soviet Union, United States, United Kingdom and France Respective Occupation of Regions in Germany

   第二次世界大战结束后，苏、美、英、法四国处置德国的一种形式。为了防止德国军国主义再起,美国在第二次世界大战期间力主分割德国。1943年12月1日，F. D.罗斯福在德黑兰会议正式提出这一设想，即把德国分割成5个部分,每个地区都成为一个独立国家。鲁尔和萨尔地区由国际共管。И.В.斯大林为了严惩德国法西斯,赞同美国方案。W.L.S.丘吉尔虽有保留,但也表示支持。1944年上半年，苏联红军攻势凌厉，越出边界，美、英盟军登陆诺曼底。军事形势迅速发展，促使美、英在确定肢解德国之前，谋求就临时对德占领问题与苏联达成协议。前此，英国于1944年初根据艾德礼委员会报告，向欧洲咨询委员会提出临时划分德占区的建议，即按1937年德国疆界分成 3个占领区，苏占东部、英占西北部（包括鲁尔）、美占西南部和萨尔，柏林由三国共同占领。苏联同意英国方案。美国认为拟议中的方案，苏占区面积过大，英占区包括主要工业区鲁尔，均对美国不利。但鉴于苏军已步步逼近德国边界,美国来不及另提方案,遂于4月28日同意英国方案。1944年9月12日，欧洲咨询委员会以英国建议为蓝本，提出第一份临时划分德占区的方案。由于英国作出一定让步，罗斯福在第二次魁北克会议(1943，1944)上接受德国西南部作为美占区，放弃与英国对换占区的设想。随着欧洲反法西斯战争临近结束，美、英与苏联在战后安排问题上分歧增多。美、英认为扶植一个强大的德国，有利于在战后抗衡苏联。苏联为了适应形势变化，也开始强调德国统一。出于上述考虑,美、英、苏三国虽在1945年2月雅尔塔会议上达成分割德国的原则协议，实际上均已放弃分割德国的主张。分区占领德国便从权宜之计变为正式方案。为了进一步增强西方在欧洲及德国的实力，英国主张FaGuo参加对德占领。美国经过考虑，罗斯福在2月5日的雅尔塔会议上正式建议，从美、英两个占领区各划一部分组成FaGuo占领区。邱吉尔、斯大林表示同意。1945年6月5日，四国驻德占领军总司令在柏林正式声明把德国分成 4个部分，东区归苏、西北区归英、西南区归美、西区归法。“大柏林”区由四国共同占领。声明还规定由四国总司令正式组成盟国管制委员会。7月中旬起,四大国在德国和柏林按划定区域实行占领和管制。在 7月底召开的波茨坦会议上,四国又通过对德管制的政治经济原则。至此，苏、美、英、法四国分区占领德国的局面正式形成。（竺培芬）

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麦卡锡，J.R.Joseph Raymond McCarthy (1908～1957)

   美国共和党参议员。1908年11月14日生于威斯康星州的一个小城镇。1935年毕业于马克特大学。后在威斯康星州当律师，并当过巡回法庭法官(1940～1942)。第二次世界大战期间，在海军陆战队服役。1946年在威斯康星州当选为美国参议员。
　　1950年2月9日他在西弗吉尼亚州惠林城发表煽动演说,虚构“共产主义威胁”和“共产党的渗透”活动,声称有 205名共产党的“颠覆分子”已经钻进国务院及其他政府机构，要求进行清洗。麦卡锡的演说得到一些财团、**组织和社会右翼势力的支持。共和党人也曾把麦卡锡作为党派斗争的工具,攻击执政的民主党总统,掀起全国性的激烈的**“十字军运动”，开始了麦卡锡的政治****。1950年 3月《华盛顿邮报》发表一幅漫画，在象征专门从事诽谤活动的圆形泥浆桶上写着“麦卡锡主义”几个大字，由此“麦卡锡主义”和麦卡锡煽起的政治****活动同名。麦卡锡利用参议院常设调查小组委员会主席和政府工作委员会主席的职权在朝野上下搜集黑名单，制造恐怖舆论，进行非法审讯，采取各种法西斯手段诽谤、攻击、****民主进步力量和无辜人士。造成指控O.拉铁摩尔等人的“共产党间*”案和****“原子弹之父”J.R.奥本海默案，清洗国务院中对中国***持较客观态度的“中国通”费正清、谢伟思、范宣德、柯乐博等，麦卡锡的猖狂活动不仅激起各界人士的义愤，也引起了统治集团的恐惧。1954年4～6月在陆军听证会辩论中麦卡锡被击败。1954年12月 2日参议院以67对22
票正式通过了谴责麦卡锡的决议。麦卡锡被撤除参议院两机构主席职务。1957年5月2日病死。（黄安年）