最新考博写作指南（二）

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②    Joey looked at the scene from the summit of Mt. Jolmo Lungma. In the distant north he saw Tibet. A bit closer, he saw some of the lower peaks of the Himalayan range. On a ledge about one thousand feet below him, he saw the figures of some of the men who had helped him prepare for his final climb to the top.(由远及近) vkKaPC  
（三）定义法
定义法(Definition)就是采用定义法可将某一事物（见例①）或某一抽象概念（见例②）的含义、性质和范围解释得淋漓尽致，使读者能更全面地理解这一事物或概念的特点。例如：

①    A wristwatch is a mechanical device which is used for telling time. Its main advantage over other types of time-telling devices is that it is small enough to be worn on the wrist, so that one can easily know the time by looking down. Wristwatches come in various shapes and sizes, but all have one thing in common: a band or strap with which they may be attached to the wrist. 8i}
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②    A“liberated woman”is simply a woman who controls her own life, rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations. A“liberated woman”can be found pursuing any line of work, including housework, or no work at all. She may or may not be married; she may or may not have borne children. She may belong to any race; she may have attained any age. She may be poor or wealthy, educated or illiterate. She need have only one trait in common with her “liberated sisters”; She makes her own choices, whether they be the colors on her walls or the advanced degrees she seeks. She acts of her own volition, responsible to herself, and not out of fear of what her mother, lover, or neighbor might say.                     ----Klamer W.Harp r:*n4)0z  
  （四）分类法 omB{G`  
分类法（Classification）就是将某一事物或概念整理归纳为不同的种类。用分类法应当注意的是：将某一事物或概念进行整理归类时，要保证被归纳的一类事物或概念之间应有明确的界限，或应相互排斥，也就是说一旦某物或概念已被归纳为A类，那它就不能同时又属于B类。例如： mZxBBn-g  
①Clouds are classified according to how they are formed. There are two basic types:1. Clouds formed by rising air currents. They are piled up and puffy. They are called“cumulus”which means pile up or accumulated. 2. Clouds formed when a layer of air is cooled below the saturation point without vertical movement. These are in sheets or fog-like layers. They are called“stratums”, meaning sheet-like or layered. >.R1(RjS}  
②There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and best-sellers—unread, untouched. (This deluded individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books.) The second has a great many books—a few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as the day they were bought. (This person would probably like to make books his own, but is restrained by a false respect for their physical appearance.) The third has a few books or many—every one of them dog-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back. (This man owns books.)                                                                   `                                       ----Mortimer J. Adler x::&ek*   
（五）比较对照法
1）    比较法（Comparison）是用来显示或辨别出那些通常被认为是不同的人物或事物之间所存在着的相同之处，常用的转折词或关连词（或词组）有：both, each, like, as, at the same time, accordingly, similarly, just as, compare with, such as 等。例如： FN,-o5nJh  
The same qualities that make people good houseguests make them good hospital patients. Good houseguests can expect a reasonable amount of service and effort on their behalf, and hospital patients can also. Guests have to mnIr].  
adjust to what is for them a change, and certainly hospital patients must do the same. No one appreciates a complaining, unpleasant, unappreciative _WF}W6YS  
  house guest, and the hospital staff is no exception. Houseguests who expect )v/$b|Vd  
  vast changes to be made for their benefit are not popular for long. Certainly Z3,a (7  
  nurses and other personnel with their routines feel the same way about @fby5_Y  
  patients in their care. Just as houseguests must make adjustments to make CF(2gDuQm)  
  their stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances. CAU%XDo  
2)对照法（Contrast）是用来指出通常被认为相同或相似的人物/事物之间存在着的 VP([ #J,](  
  不同之处。常用的转折词或关连词（或词组）有: although, but, however, whereas, while, unlike, yet, in contrast with, instead of, on the other hand, on 7S6Mm=F/h
  
  the contrary等。例如：   The students in our class are quite different from each other. For instance, my roommate is interested in literature. He doesn’t care about his grades in math. But our monitor is a good runner. No one in our college can catch up with him at track meets. The girls spend most of their spare time at dancing parties. They seldom appear on the playground. Some of my classmates are talkative and social; others quiet and shy. However, in spite of our W#*fDQ=:  
differences, we’re good friends. <}gxPr c  
（六）因果法
因果法（Cause and Effect）是按事件的起因及产生的后果之间的关系来展开段落的。采用此法写作时应注意：为了能清楚地说明段落中要说明的原因或结果，主题句最好放在段首（见例①）；如果某个结果是由多种原因引起的，通常先写结果，后交待多种原因（见例②）；如果某单一原因引起多种结果，一般先写原因后写结果（见例③）。例如： ①    One might wonder why, after the Norman Conquest, French did not become the national language, replacing English entirely. (主题句) The reason is that the Conquest was not a national migration, as the earlier Anglo-Saxon invasion had been. Great number of Normans came to England, but they came as rulers and landlords. French became the language of the court, the language of the nobility, the language of polite society, the language of literature. But it did not replace English as the language of the people. There must always have been hundreds of towns and villages in which French was never heard except when visitors of high station passed through. |\=R]Z  
②    Students study English (结果)for different reasons. The first reason is that students may need English to be able to read articles and textbooks about their subject on Their English. The second reason is that many students study English because they have to! English is part of the school curriculum. Another reason is that they are attracted by the foreign culture. As a consequence, they are studying English hard to know more about the English-speaking people and countries. The last reason is possibly that a good knowledge of English will help students get a better job when they graduate from the university. `s=w,w/h  
③    Smoking（原因）results in a series of negative effects. To begin with, it has been proved that poisonous nicotine contained in cigarettes can reduce your fitness. And what is worse, it can even cause lung cancer if you smoke constantly. Furthermore, passive smoking occurs in your family members and other people as a result of your smoking at home or in public places. In addition, smoking adds to your financial difficulty if you happen to be short of money. Therefore, giving up smoking is a good way to make you and your family happy. \Z:6!g>R?  
（七）举例归纳法
举例法（Example）就是指用具体的事例（见例①）或细节（见例②）来阐述证实某一主题句中的中心思想概念的正确性、合理性等。通过举例法展开段落，可以使一般的或抽象的论述变得更加具体易懂，这也是用来展开段落最有效、最简单的方法之一。 e*K<a4s3h  
如果先举出实例，而后再归纳主题，即从具体到一般，这种方法叫归纳法�*****eneralization）。采用归纳法往往能引起读者的兴趣，可增强文章的说服力（见例③）。例如： d6uM_(J2S  
①    In order to prevent non-smokers from being affected, measures must be taken to reduce the chances of smoking. A lot of work can be done concerning this. For example, in some public places, such as in theaters, cinemas, smoking should be forbidden. Even on the train or plane people should not be allowed to smoke. Doctors, teachers, government leaders should take the lead not to smoke. Above all, the harmfulness and dangers caused by smoking should be made known to all through newspapers, broadcast, or TV program. Also the growing of tobacco and the production of cigarettes should not be encouraged. Only in this way can we effectively reduce the chances of smoking. k53l)V"0ln  
②    My little niece, a ten-month-old baby, is the loveliest child I have ever seen. Her face is like a red apple and her eyes are like bright stars. When you carry her in your arms, she likes to put her arms around your neck. All the grown-ups in the family love her very much and often try to make her smile. But quite often it is she who makes us laugh. Once I winked at her and she smiled. When I did it again, she watched me attentively. Then she tried to imitate. While we closed one eye to wink, she had to close both eyes at the same time, and then quickly opened them again. And that was her way to wink. We all burst into laughter. When we looked at her again, she was staring at us, puzzled, as if she was asking:“What are you laughing at?” z[
③    A part-time job supplements a student’s education. It can provide valuable practical education such as training for do-it-yourself project, knowledge useful to future housewife, car owner. It can also provide field work related to the student’s major field of study, hospital work for future nurses, tutoring for future teachers, playing in a commercial band for music students. Further, it can provide valuable psychological training such as association with people from different backgrounds, taking orders from superiors. 习作者在练习时，除了应掌握以上所介绍的研究生考试中展开段落的一些方法以外，还应了解写好段落的基本要求并掌握一定的技巧，即切题、连贯和完整http://www.freekaobo.com二）    切题 rb�w h7�e  
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切题是写作中最首要的也是最基本的要求，不论用哪种语言进行写作，切题是衡量文章质量的主要标准。所谓切题就是要紧扣主题（句）或主题所要表达的思想，如若偏离主题，即使你写得再多、再长，遣词造句的能力再强也无济于事。研究生考试对切题、充分表达主题思想有较高的要求，考生作文失分的很大一部分原因就是因为偏题。因此，在展开段落时，我们一定要在段落主题句所限定的范围内，抓住段落的中心或要点，围绕其主导思想进行充分的展开。例如： da. 0[a:J  
The development of English language falls into three reasonably distinct periods. Old English lasted from about A.D. 450, when the first Germanic tribes began to settle in England, until about 1100. Middle English extended from about 1100 to about 1475. And Modern English began about 1475 and has lasted to the present times. Of course the breaks were not as sudden and definite as these dates indicate… PSFEA\AVt  
以上段落的第一句是主题句，“英语发展的三个阶段”是其中心思想，作者根据此中心思想阐述了古代英语、中世纪英语、现代英语这样三个发展阶段。如若作者阐述的不是三个发展阶段，而是有关英语的其它情况，那就偏离主题了。 3xct[}  
The sentence in most well written paragraphs may be analyzed into four general functions. First, there are paragraph introducers, which are sentences that establish the topic focus of the paragraph as a whole. Second, there are paragraph developers, which present examples or details of various kinds that support the ideas set forth by the paragraph introducers. Third, there are viewpoint or contest modulators, which are sentences that provide a smooth transition between different sets of ideas. Fourth, there are paragraph terminators, which logically conclude the ideas discussed in the paragraph in a psychologically satisfying manner. Not all pieces of writing will conform to this analysis; however, most successful paragraphs usually contain some combination of these four sentence types. P&VNMv  
这段文章的第一句是主题句，其中心思想是“段落中的句子有四种功能”；后面四句围绕中心思想展开，分别解释这四种功能；最后一句是全段的总结。这样整个段落紧扣主题，构成了一个有机的整体。 ,'nJ(G04  
然而，有的习作者在展开段落时就没有注意到切题这个关键的问题。例如： {.eoBIFNDe  
主题句：One morning I got up very early, and everything around was quiet. Q[2Irzq  
段落：One morning I got up very early, and everything around was quiet. Because sports can keep us fit, fresh at work and study, I attended to take early morning walks. My folks slept deeply, so I left softly without making any noise. .1r1srsE  
此例主题句的关键词是“early ”和“quiet”，应该围绕这两点展开段落。可是，上例段落的作者却随心所欲，想当然地将早起与清晨锻炼及散步联系起来，这样就不切题了。 jE79mya  
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