值得一提的是一些西方国际关系学者超越民族国家概念对当今国际体系中的不同类国家做了新的定义,比如索儒森(Soresen )就认为,[26]当今国家从三个角度:政府执政形式(governance)、民族国家构成(nationhood)、经济上看可以分成三类:第一类是后现代国家(post-modern states),一般指的是欧美后工业化的国家,自由主义为主、非传统民族国家的、公民社会性质的、自我选择决定为成员的、多层次的认同、多元文化而且特别包容亚文化的共同体;政权形式是多层次、多中心、国际性甚至超越国家的不同体制结合;经济体是跨国性质的、互相依赖溶入国际市场的、非传统单一经济体的。第二类是现代国家(modern states ),一般主要是指像中国一类的国家,有比较发达的同一性、民族国家的基于社会广泛接受的权利和义务原则上的紧密建构、重要的非物质层面的共同体观念、合法性观念和社会整合、国家与公民之间的权利义务协约等;也包括现代国家政权相对集权、对主权的强烈认同保护、管理政府体制成熟,政权垄断暴力的建立和继续;民族国家的高度认同、领土、种族和文化的纽带;相对自主自立的经济实体。最后一类是后殖民国家(post-Colonial states),主要是前欧美殖民地国家(但不包括古老文明如印度和绝大部分伊斯兰国家),这些国家作为民族国家的内在凝聚力弱、没有成功建立公民社会共同体、亚文化之间少包容多竞争、缺乏民族国家整体文化认同、弱化的政权合法性;政府没有内在张力和统合能力、缺乏真正的自主独立性、对社会的统治主要基于暴力而没有建立法治社会;经济主要是依附性质的、缺乏完整的国民经济体系。
这三类国家因为其主权观念上的区别、国内政府制度的差异、现代民族基础和经济形态的不同造成其国际关系上的各具特点的行为表现。在索儒森等人看来只有在对国家分类的基础上才可以更好的理解当今国际体系和国际关系。比如这个新国家分类对传统现实主义和结构现实主义的主要挑战就是国际体系中的基本单位,即便仍然是民族国家,也不是“相似单位”(like unit )。所以许多基于民族国家在国际体系中是相似的单位个体的看法来分析国际关系的说法是不完整甚至是错误的。另外一些西方所谓的自由左派进一步根据国家分类重新定义后民族国家时代的国际关系。如库柏(Robert Cooper ,2002)就提出了“新自由帝国主义”的概念,在国家分类的基础上直接承认双重标准和干涉主义的正确性。[27]在库柏看来,西方后现代国家中的国际关系和非西方国家与西方的关系现在处于不同的行为逻辑和伦理准则之中。西方后现代国家中的相互合作、尊重人权、和平解决争端等国与国关系的准则已经建立起一种不同的国际体系和行为;而非西方世界中传统的绝对主权观仍占主导地位,拒绝外界任何形式的干涉是中心行为逻辑。西方国际体系与非西方体系打交道时就要使用不同的行为逻辑观,比如误导、强加、人道干涉等方式。由此可见,在西方国际政治理论界,有关所谓“后民族国家”的讨论仍在进行,远没有达到一致的结论。
结语
最后,我们应该承认在全球化的国际大环境下,人们必须接受传统民族国家无论在内容还是形式上也许都不能完全适应人类社会所面临的问题的复杂性和多元性,所以民族国家这样传统的主权单位才陷入一种尴尬的境地。德国前总理施密特曾说过一句精辟的话:对我们人类社会所面临的重大问题来说,现在的民族国家太小了,但对于我们面临的实际小问题来说,它又太大了(“The nation-stateis too big for the small problems and too small for the big problems”,Cranston,2004,38)。也许我们应该接受多元的、多层次的国家形式已经成为现代国际体系的新特征。尽管传统民族国家可能在相当长的一个时期内仍然是国际体系中主流的主权单位,但包含现代民族国家和后民族国家的包容性的、复杂的国际机制也许可以帮助人们更好的处理人类面临的多元、复杂问题。无论是民族还是民族国家的消亡并不是我们能预见的,而民族问题的最后“解决”在可见的将来也是不可能的。超出传统民族国家的新国际机制肯定会提醒人们尝试用新方式处理民族问题而且也会继续改变现代国际体系的面貌,但民族主义作为一种特别的意识形态仍将在自我重新定义中继续影响人们在国际关系中的集体行为。
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[6]也就是:Perennialism sees nation as “Cultural Community,Immemorial,Rooted,Organic,Seamless ,Quality,Popular,and Ancestrallly-based;but Modernism sees nation as ”Political Community ,Modern ,Created,Mechanical,Divided,Resource ,Elite-construct,Communication-based.“参见Smith ,1998,p.23.
[7]有关参考西方学术思想对中国现代民族主义的研究,我们可以举出两位海外华裔学人的重要著作:Yongnian Zheng(1999),Discovering Chinese Nationalismin China,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press ;Suisheng Zhao(2004),Nation-State by Construction,Stanford :Stanford University Press.
[11]需要说明的是因为本章讨论的重点并不是现代主权观,所以对主权观只是沿用传统的解释:国家主权主要是国家政府对其统治的特定领土和民众的权力而该权力是终级权威,在其之上没有、也不承认存在着外在的、更高的权威;根据此定义在当代国际关系的领域的主权原则简单来说就是独立、平等、自主(independence,equality and autonomy )。参见Stephen D.Krasner,1999.
[12]这一点我们下面分析民族问题前景时还要讨论。
[13]有关民族自决和民族分离的讨论,主要参见Margaret Moore,ed.,1998,特别是Daniel Philpott ,Wayne Norman 和Kai Nielsen 的有关章节。
[14]两个决议全名为:“Declaration on the Granting of Independenceto Colonial Countries and Peoples ,”UN General Assembly Resolution 1514(XV)of 14December 1960,
“Declaration on Principles of International Law Friendly relationsand Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the UnitedNations ,”UN General Assembly Resolution 2625(XXV )of 28October1970,http://www.hku.edu/law/conlawhk/conlaw/outline/Outline4/2625.htm.
[17]有关国内法中一般都没有分离条款,参见Patrick J.Monahan and MichaelJ.Bryant ,with Nancy C Cote ,“Coming to Terms with Plan B :Ten PrinciplesGoverning Secession ,”CD Howe Institute Commentary 83,1996,June,http://www.cdhowe.org/pdf/Monahan.pdf.