Abstract: This article develops a theory of single-party regime consolidation to explain the dramatic variation in longevity among these regimes. The strength of the opposition and rent scarcity during party consolidation, it argues, structure the choices available to elites as they decide how to build a support base. A weak opposition and ready access to rents makes a low-cost consolidation possible, but these conditions provide little incentive to build a robust coalition or strong party organization; this trajectory generates weak single-party rule that is likely to collapse in a crisis. Conversely, elites who face a powerful opposition and scarce rents have no choice but to offer potential allies access to policy-making and have powerful incentives to build a strong and broad-based party organization. Ruling parties that emerge from initial conditions like these prove more resilient during later crises. The author conducts an initial test of the argument against paired comparisons of Guinea-Bissau and Tanzania and of Indonesia and the Philippines.
还有一些解释主要是关注外部因素的影响。有人认为得到国际支援(如冷战时期从美苏国两国得到的国际支援)的政权更有可能在危机中幸存。可是,下面我要分析的四个国家虽然都曾获得过巨大的国际援助,但却并不尽然地挺过了危机。这说明这种解释至少在这一类政权中并不太有力。颁布戒严令后的菲律宾和实施“新秩序”(New Order)的印尼曾经是最受美国欢迎的**联盟,而几内亚比和坦桑尼亚的社会主义领袖也获得过苏联的强大支援。一党制里的领导人变更也可能对政权的生存产生重要影响。在最高领导人更迭的过程中很可能会出现政权****。如果不注意到这一点,领导人更迭就可能是个“隐性”因素。几内亚比绍与佛得角独立非洲党(译注:葡萄牙语Partido Africano da Independencia da Guine e Cabo Verde, 简称PAIGC)在出现领导人更迭之前就已经崩溃了,而坦桑尼亚的“坦噶尼喀非洲民族联盟”(TANU)在1985年却轻而易举地实现最高权力从开国领袖尼雷尔(Julius Kambarage Nyerere)顺利过渡给他的下一任,完成了领导人的更迭。1977年苏哈托政府面临的危机与权力交接毫无关系,倒是与国内经济状况有很大关联。同理,是经济危机最终把菲律宾的马科斯政府给赶下了台。简言之,领导人更迭的危机似乎并不能解释为什么这四个国家中有的政权崩溃了,有的却仍然存在。
截止到1968年,虽然“新秩序”党基本上铲除了苏加诺和印共(PKI)在军事和政府中的残留势力,苏哈托及其亲信仍然担心现政权的合法性问题。更为重要的是,苏哈托和其他几个主要政府领导想建立一个能够反映自己意志,代表自己利益并且还能支持政府政策的政治组织。苏哈托与“新秩序”当局的温和派想到了军队的功能性团体总秘书处(Sekretariat Bersama Golongan Karya 或Sekber Golkar,戈尔卡)[28]
与所有葡萄牙在西非的殖民地一样,几内亚比绍也是在1974年葡萄牙发生军事政变之后取得了独立。虽然非洲人几内亚比绍与佛得角独立党(PAIGC葡萄牙语Partido Africano da Independencia da Guine e Cabo Verde)掌了权,但他们只控制了国家的部分地区和城市。这样,在国家独立时候,国内不少人口不受独立党的控制,而且那些居民还严重依赖替代型经济和葡萄牙的援助。[48]此外,独立党进去独立战争时,葡萄牙的其它殖民地如安哥拉和莫桑比克等也纷纷闹独立,而葡萄牙国内的政局又日益不稳定(这一因素导致葡萄牙1974年的国内政治干涉)。因此,与其它的民族独立运动党相比,几内亚比绍独立党所面临的挑战要小得多。当时葡萄牙80%的兵力已调到安哥拉和莫桑比克抗击当地的游击队,无法抽调兵力到几内亚去。[49]
1978年选举之前,马科斯宣布成立“新社会运动党”(New Society Movement Party, KBL),用它作为马科斯经济政策和政府的形象包装工具。该党的成员,完全由由马科斯的一些亲信组成,而在二十世纪七十年代末,该党的成立没有对巩固政权产生任何正面作用,反倒促使了反对联盟的出现。到了二十世纪八十年代初,地方政客中没有幸运地得到马科斯庇护的官员对马科斯的态度比早期的官员还要含糊。他们千方百计地显示自己对本地选民的忠贞,以拉开与马科斯的距离,同时又试图利用马科斯施舍的好处。”[66]
※ 本文作者史密斯非常感谢Jason Brownlee, Barbara Geddes, Sam Huntington, Goran Hyden, Steve Levitsky, Joel Migdal, Conor O’Dwyer, Dan Slater, David Waldner以及所有参加由耶鲁大学比较政治研究室和哈佛大学国际及地区研究院举办的午餐学术研讨会的学者们所提的观点。此外作者要衷心感谢三位匿名审稿人为本文提供的意见,在数据引用方面特别感谢Barbara Geddes和 Jason Brownlee 的慷慨相助。
[1]Barbara Geddes, “Authoritarian Breakdown: Empirical Test of a Game Theoretic Argument” (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Atlanta, September 2–5, 1999).
[2] 为了在一党制谱系内考量相对长寿率,我将对下面将要讨论的基本Logit模式进行评价,但是只包括一党制的一些变量。其中没有哪个变量能鲜明地证明自己比其它变量更持久或更短暂,因此将样本中的所有变量都考虑进去或许更合适一些i。这里引用的相关数据是由Barbara Geddes提供的。
[3] 的确,若参照Geddes的标准,我觉得马科斯执政时期的菲律宾在1978-1986这八年里,13个指标中有7个符合一党制政体的特征。用Geddes的话说就是,菲律宾在这八年里算是混合型一党制政体。Geddes对马科斯政权有非常详细和权威的解析。
[4] 虽然这些数据是在不同时间段撷取的,但Geddes在她那篇发表于1999年的文章里是利用标准Logit模式展开分析的。我利用7.0’s xtlogit 指令来检测这是否只是一时的感应,但检测结果并没有什么重大变化。因此,我仍然采用了Geddes曾用过的标准逻辑回归模式。(standard logistic regression model)其中一个微小的差异就是我把中东与北非看作是一个地区。
[5] 关于君主制的数据由Jason Brownlee提供。
[6] 由于墨西哥在1950-1992年之间并未发生政权崩溃的局面,若把墨西哥的傀儡政权也考虑进去的话就能很好地预测政权崩溃是不可能的,同时Stanta 7.0’s Logit&xtlogit 指令也都不适用于对墨西哥的分析。由于1991年前苏联的PWT数据缺失,所以苏维埃政权的崩溃并未在这些模型中出现,对前苏联的观测也就无从谈起了。
[7]Guillermo O’Donnell, Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Argentina, 1966–1973, in Comparative Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 页11。
[8]Samuel Huntington, “Social and Institutional Dynamics of One-Party Systems,” in Samuel Huntington and Clement Moore, Authoritarian Politics in Modern Society: The Dynamics of Established One-Party Systems (New York: Basic Books, 1970), 页14。
[9]Barrington Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press: 1966).
[10] Geddes (注1), 页11
[11]Eva Bellin, “The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Exceptionalism in Com-parative Perspective,” Comparative Politics 36 (January 2005).
[12] 印尼和菲律宾在“独*”和“民主”这两个指标上的得分是一样的,1974和1977两年,印尼在这两项指标上的得分比是6:1,菲律宾在实施戒严令期间的最后三年里也是6:1。几内亚比绍在1979-1980年危机年代的“独*”和“民主”的得分比是7:0,而坦桑尼亚在1980-1983年危机年代的得分比是7:1.对政府“独*”的打分是综合考衡政府不同的对内压制程度得出的。
[13] 这段文字所引用的数据来自Monty G..Mashall:Major Episodes ofPolitical Violence, 1946–2004, http://members.aol.com/CSPmgm/warlist.htm (accessed February 22,2005).
[14]Huntington (注8).
[15]Philip Selznick, The Organizational Weapon: A Study of Bolshevik Strategy and Tactics (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1952).
[16] Martin Shefter, Political Parties and the State: The American Historical Experience (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 页32–33.
[17] 同上, 页13.
[18] 同上, 页27.
[19] Jason Brownlee, “Durable Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 2004).
[20] Shefter (注 16), 页30, 黑体为本文作者所加。
[21] Peter Gourevitch, Politics in Hard Times: Comparative Responses to International Economic Crises (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press), 页9。
[22] 印尼的Golongan Karya(一个功能性组织,也叫Golkar)取代了“新秩序”党,菲律宾的KBL则是马科斯“新社会运动”的政治载体。
[23] Mochtar Mas’oed, “The Indonesian Economy and Political Structure during the Early New Order, 1966–1971” (Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, Columbus, 1983), 66–67.
[24] 这些地区性袭击事件为新政权拉响了警钟:爪洼岛的东中部是印尼爪洼多数派的文化中心,苏哈托还有他的许多亲信都是生于斯长于斯的。
[25] Mas’oed (注 23), 101–5.
[26] Harsja Bachtiar, “Indonesia,” in D. K. Emmerson, ed., Students and Politics in Developing Nations
(New York: Praeger, 1968), 190–91; and John Bresnan, Managing Indonesia:The Modern Political Econ-
omy (New York: Columbia University Press, ), 36–37.
[27] KAMI是Kesatuan Aksi Mahasiswa Indonesia的缩写,叫“印尼学生运动联盟”,KAMI在印尼语中还指代第一人称“我们”。KAMI这个词还是在1965年10月末印尼一群学生和**军事领袖在印尼高等教育部部长Sjari Thejeb家里开会时产生的。
[28] Leo Suryadinata, Military Ascendancy and Political Culture: A Study of Indonesia’s GOLKAR (Athens:
Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1989), 10–13.
[29] Julian M. Boileau, GOLKAR: Functional Group Politics in Indonesia ( Jakarta: CSIS, 1983); David
Reeve, GOLKAR of Indonesia: An Alternative to the Party System (Singapore and Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1985); and Suryadinata (注 28).
[30] Ichlasul Amal, Regional and Central Government in Indonesian Politics (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada
University Press, 1992.
[31] Suara Muhammadiyah, February 1974. See also Bresnan (注 26), 136.
[32] Bresnan (注 26), 137.
[33] 同上
[34] 同上, 142.
[35] 同上, 163.
[36] Suryadinata (注 28), 76.
[37] 印尼政府在上世纪六十年代末创造了木材业的发展高峰期,木材的销售额急剧攀升。然而,1970年印尼政府颁布了一系列的法律条令,旨在将木材业国有化并企图将它与现政权捆绑在一起。印尼政府真的实现了将木材业变成一种易于掌控的政治寻租之源了吗?请参考如下文章:
[38] Hero Cahyono, Peranan Ulama Dalam GOLKAR 1971–1980: Dari Pemilu Sampai Malari (The role of the Islamic scholars in GOLKAR 1971–1980: From the general election to the January 15 disaster)(Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan, 1992); Hariyadhie, Perspektif Gerakan Mahasiswa 1978 Dalam Percaturan Politik Nasional(Perspectives on the student movement of 1978 in the political arena) (Jakarta:PT Golden Terayon Press, 1997).
[39] Ruhumbika, Towards Ujamaa:Twenty Years of TANU Leadership (Kampala, Salaam: East African Literature Bureau, 1974), 5–10.
[40] Shefter (注 16).
[41] Ruhumbika (注 39), 13–18.
[42] William Tordoff, “Regional Administration in Tanzania,” Journal of Modern African Studies (May 1965), 66.
[43] 同上, 64, 黑体是后加的。
[44] Norman N. Miller, “The Rural African Party: Political Participation in Tanzania,” American Political Science Review 64 (June 1970), 550.
[45] 感谢Goran Hyden为该话题提供宝贵意见。
[46] Frank Holmquist, “Class Structure, Peasant Participation, and Rural Self-Help,” in J. D. Barkan,
ed., Politics and Public Policy in Kenya and Tanzania (New York: Praeger, 1984), 191–92; and Aili Marie
Tripp, “Local Organizations, Participation, and the State in Urban Tanzania,“ in Goran Hyden and
Michael Bratton, eds., Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1991), 234–36.
[47] Goran Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry (London: Heinemann, 1980), 36–37.
[48] Patrick Chabal, “Party, State, and Socialism in Guinea-Bissau,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 17, no. 2 (1983), 194.
[49] Joshua Forrest, Guinea-Bissau: Power, Conflict, and Renewal in a West African Nation (Boulder,Colo.: Westview Press, 1992), 30–31.
[50] Chabal (注 48), 191.
[51] 同上, 19
[52] Joshua Forrest, “Guinea-Bissau since Independence: A Decade of Domestic Power Struggles,”
Journal of Modern African Studies 25 (March 1987), 99–100.
[53] 同上, 97.
[54] Ibid., 102.
[55] 同上 104.
[56] 然而,马科斯和他那些属于菲律宾传统政治精英的政治对手们都助长了反对派的气焰。马科斯这样做的目的是为了使戒严令具有合法性,而反对派利用自己掌握的报纸媒体大肆渲染地方叛乱,同时还将总统的画像悬挂在马尼拉街头。犹如Tompson所言,在这一时期,双方所标榜的都不是太贴切,双方的政治动机都过于明显。详情请参考:
[57] 在戒严令颁布的最初几年里,MNIF的力量得到了加强,到1975年还迫使政府回到了谈判桌。结果就是:双方停火,菲律宾南部的穆斯林地区获得了自治权,MNIF的一些领导也得到了政府的荫庇…
[58] David Wurfel, “Martial Law in the Philippines: The Methods of Regime Survival,” Pacific Affairs
50 (Spring 1977), 6.
[59] 感谢Danslater参与对这一时期反马科斯运动的讨论。
[60] Ross (注37), 页71–73.
[61] 同上, 页76, emphasis added.
[62] Mark R. Thompson, “The Marcos Regime in the Philippines,” in H.E. Chehabi and Juan J. Linz,
Sultanistic Regimes (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1998), 218–21. See also Thompson (注
56), 52–54.
[63] Thompson (注 56), 49–63.
[64] See 注 60.
[65] Renato S. Velasco, “Philippine Democracy: Promise and Performance,” in A. Laothamatas, ed., De-
mocratization in Southeast and East Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1997), 86–87.
[66] Richard Nations and Guy Sacerdoti, “Marcos Gives Ground on Some Points, but the Future Is
Still Uncertain: The Aquino Legacy,” Far Eastern Economic Review 125 (August 30, 1984), 22.
[67] Peter Dauvergne, Shadows in the Forest: Japan and the Politics of Timber in Southeast Asia (Cam-
bridge: MIT Press, 1997), 140.
[68] Nations and Sacerdoti (注66).
[69] Brownlee (注 19).
[70] Steven Heydemann, Authoritarianism in Syria: Institutions and Social Conflict, 1946–1970 (Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999), 157–61.
[71] 同上 162.
[72] Ellen Lust-Okar, “Institutions, Historical Legacies and the Failure of Liberalization in the Middle East and North Africa” (Manuscript, Yale University, 2004); Benjamin Smith, “Hard Times in the
Land of Plenty: Oil, Opposition and Late Development” (forthcoming).
[73] Evan Lieberman 的文章就是一个很好的例子。
[74] David Waldner, “From Intra-Type Variation to the Origins of Types: Recovering the Macro-An-
alytics of State Building” (Paper presented at the conference, “Asian Political Economy in an Era of
Globalization,” Dartmouth College, May 10–11, 2002).