在政治科学与国际政治研究领域,情绪分析首要的一个方法论问题就是度量(measurement)问题。这也是情绪心理学研究中的一个基本问题,正如一位美国心理学家所言:“情绪的度量问题仍然是一个喧闹的研究领域。情绪中的社会、认知与生物过程的相互影响,现在越来越容易控制和处理了。情绪现象在一些理论与方法的指导下,得到大量的研究。这些理论与方法需要社会、认知、发展、临床以及神经科学家的相互合作。”[9]情绪心理学关于情绪度量技术的发展,为政治科学领域的情绪分析奠定了一个良好的基础。但是,政治世界中情绪度量具有一定的特殊性,如公众情绪可以通过研究技术获得,但历史事件当中的情绪度量则无法直接进行。正是基于此,美国政治心理学家马库斯(G. E. Marcus)认为政治科学研究中情绪分析的科学化很难操作和进行。[10]
情绪的非理性后果其实是对传统决策理论——理性选择论的一种“学术反动”。在国际政治分析领域,这种学术努力在1970年代初已有部分论述。早期的研究集中在一些高度压力(stress)的情境中,如危机决策中环境所引诱的紧张情绪对决策过程与结果的影响,包括个体决策与组织/团体决策。[22]奥利·霍尔斯蒂(Ole R. Holsti)认为,适度的压力与紧张情绪是个体或组织问题解决的必要前提条件;但是,高度的压力可能导致更具侵略性的政策选择。当然,“现有的证据表明,这个过程可能更为复杂:危机诱致的压力会产生一些变化,诸如时间知觉、其他可供政策选择选择的定义以及沟通方式的变化。”[23]一些诸如高度压力的情绪会干扰我们的理性决策,而我们研究的目的在于揭示紧张情绪在何种条件下,会产生侵略性、绥靖以及投降,或者逃避现实等反应。首先,当危机之中面临着高度紧张压力下时,决策者进行政策选择时可能会寻求历史相似性的类比。如1956年苏伊士运河危机期间,安东尼·艾登(Anthony Eden)将纳塞尔(Nasser)类比为希特勒。杜鲁门总统也将朝鲜战争的形势与1930年代德国的纳粹行动相类比。其次,在高度紧张与压力下,决策者往往倾向于保持现有的政策,而拒绝做出改变。[24]这也是认知相符理论的基本假设,即决策者在危机决策中,为了维持既有的认知而拒绝新的信息。
以上分析了压力与紧张情绪对个体与组织决策的影响,那么决策过程中的紧张情绪又是从何而来呢?这就是压力情绪的来源机制问题。决策者个体的角色、小集团动力以及官僚政治因素等都可以成为来源因素之一。具体言之,压力情绪可能来源于决策时的情境,这种情境往往具有相当的紧迫性,要求及时做出决策;也可能来源于定义和执行任务所需要的活动;或者,决策者涉身于实际操作的个人需要;以及上述三种来源的混合。[25]当然,如果要科学化研究情绪作用于决策的过程,当中重要的一项议程为概念的操作化,亦即压力情绪的概念化及操作化,我们可以通过设定哪些指标来度量决策中的情绪。正如前文所述,在国际政治分析中,这是一个很难精确化的研究目标。因为我们很容易知道并且理解,紧张等情绪可能会对具体决策产生影响,但是问题是进一步如何判断紧张情绪已经对我们的决策产生了影响呢?美国政治心理学家玛格丽特·赫尔曼(Margaret G. Hermann)将危机决策中紧张情绪对决策的影响过程细化为:“外交政策危机→威胁的内化→内部处理过程→紧张反映→决策的外部显现”[26]。
[3] Dominique Moïsi, “The Clash of Emotions”, Foreign Affairs, Vol.86, No.1, January/February 2007, p.8.
[4] 默瑟在分析国际政治研究中心理学与理性关系时指出,我们必须纠正原来的“错误知觉”,亦即将心理学分析、心理变量仅仅看作是产生非理性结果,而现有的研究越来越集中于将心理学分析、心理变量作为一种有助于理性的路径和因素。这也是国际政治心理学研究的理性转向。Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics”, International Organization, Vol.59, No.1, winter 2005, pp.77-106.
[5] Douglas D. Heckathorn, “Emotions and Rational Choice: Introduction”, Rationality and Society, Vol.5, No.2, April 1993, p.157.
[6] Jonathan Mercer, “Human Nature and the First Image: Emotion in International Politics”, Journal of International Relations and Development, Vol.9, No.3, 2006, pp.288-303.
[9] John T. Cacioppo and Wendi L. Gardner, “Emotion”, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.50, 1999, p.192.
[10] G. E. Marcus, “Emotions in Politics”, Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.3, 2000, pp.221-250. 美国学者默瑟在与笔者的交流过程中,也提及目前仍无法将实验室的情绪度量技术应用于社会事务领域,或许我们可以以归因方式来判定情绪是否存在。而郝拓德(Todd Hall)对此问题的回答是,我们应探究作为自变量的情绪,即如果情绪存在,那么会出现某种结果;如果情绪不存在,则反之。所以由果溯因,推断情绪的存在(作用)。我认为不仅仅判断情绪存在,更需要度量情绪的程度问题,或许就目前的研究深度而言,这一问题还是难以解决。
[11] Jonathan Mercer, “Human Nature and the First Image: Emotion in International Politics”, pp.296-300.
[12] Karl Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957.
[13] 尽管我们认为联盟形成是一种群体的形成,但联盟形成时的认同形成仍具有可变性。
[14] Jonathan Mercer, “Human Nature and the First Image: Emotion in International Politics”, p.297.
[15] Eldar Shafir and Robyn A. LeBoeuf, “Rationality”, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.53, 2002, pp.491-517.
[16] Herbert A. Simon, “Human Nature in Politics: The Dialogue of Psychology and Political Science”, The American Political Science Review, Vol.79, No.2, 1985, pp.293-304.
[17] Bryan D. Jones, “Bounded Rationality”, Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.2, 1999, p.299.
[18] Jonathan Mercer, “Human Nature and the First Image: Emotion in International Politics”, p.290. 对哲学传统中关于情绪与理智的关系的研究综述,请参阅William Lyons, “The Philosophy of Cognition and Emotion”, in Tim Dalgleish and Mick J. Power eds., Handbook of Cognition and Emotion, New York: JOHN WILEY & SONS, 1999, pp.21-45.
[19] 认知、动机/情绪不仅对判断与决策的偏见产生影响,而且归因偏见(attribution bias)的来源主要为认知与动机/情绪的理论之争,对这一争论的精彩评述,请参阅Philip E. Tetlock and Ariel Levi, “Attribution Bias: On the Inconclusiveness of the Cognition-Motivation Debate”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Vol.18, 1982, pp.68-88.
[20] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976. 中译本请参阅[美] 罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,秦亚青译,北京:世界知识出版社2003年版。
[21] Thierry Balzacq and Robert Jervis, “Logics of Mind and International System: A Journey with Robert Jervis”, Review of International Studies, Vol.30, No.4, 2004, pp.564-565.
[22] 心理压力与情绪之间的关系,在心理学研究领域经历了一个逐渐变迁的过程。对二者关系及变迁的研究总结,请参阅拉扎勒斯的论述:R. S. Lazarus, “From Psychological Stress to the Emotions: a History of Changing Outlooks”, Annual Review of Psychology, 1993, Vol.44, pp.1-21.
[23] Ole R. Holsti, Crisis, Escalation, War, Montreal and London: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1972, p.11, 22.
[24] Ibid., pp.22-23.
[25] Ole R. Holsti and Alexander L. George, “The Effects of Stress on the Performance of Foreign Policy-Makers”, in Cornelius P. Cotter ed. , Political Science Annual, Vol.6, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1975, p.260.
[26] Margaret G. Hermann, “Indicators of Stress in Policymaking During Foreign Policy Crises”, Political Psychology, Vol.1, No.1, Spring 1979, p.28.
[27] Ibid. , pp.30-34.
[28] Deborah Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985.
[29] Irving Janis and Leon Mann, Decision Making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment, New York: Free Press, 1977, p.41.
[30] Irving Janis, Crucial Decisions: Leadership in Policymaking and Crisis Management, New York: Free Press, 1989.
[31] Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981, p.111.
[32] Richard Ned Lebow, “Miscalculation in the South Atlantic: The Origins of the Falklands War”, in Robert Jervis et al., Psychology and Deterrence, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, pp.89-124.
[33] Chaim D. Kaufmann, “Out of the Lab and into the Archives: A Method for Testing Psychological Explanations of Political Making”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol.38, No.4, 1994, p.559.
[34] Robert Frank, “The Strategic Role of the Emotions: Reconciling Over- and Undersocialized Accounts of Behavior”, Rationality and Society, Vol.5, No.2, 1993, pp.160-184. Jack Hirshleifer, “The Affections and the Passions: Theirs Economics Logics”, Rationality and Society, Vol.5, No.2, 1993, pp.185-202.
[35] Robert Frank, Passions within Reason: the Strategic Role of the Emotions, New York: Norton, 1988.
[36] 默瑟将情绪分析路径分解为四种:作为一种副现象的情绪、作为非理性的来源之一的情绪、作为一种了解战略行动者的工具的情绪以及作为理性的一个必要方面的情绪。关于战略分析路径的具体内容,请参阅:Jonathan Mercer, “Human Nature and the First Image: Emotion in International Politics”, pp.293-294.
[37] Jon Elster, “Rationality and the Emotions”, The Economic Journal, Vol.106, No.438, 1996, p.1394.
[38] 庄锦英:“论情绪的生态理性”,《心理科学进展》2004年第6期,第815页。
[39] Linnda R. Caporael, “Evolutionary Psychology: Toward a Unifying Theory and a Hybrid Science”, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.52, 2001, pp.607-628. Joseph E. LeDoux, “Emotion: Clues form the Brain”, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.46, 1995, pp.209-235. 关于进化心理学及其在国际关系研究中应用的相关评介,请参阅:Rose Mcdermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2004, pp.177-183.
[40] Rose Mcdermott, “The Feeling of Rationality: The Meaning of Neuroscientific Advances for Political Science”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol.2, No.4, 2004, pp.699-701.
[41] Dylan Evans, Emotions: The Science of Sentiment, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. 转引自:庄锦英:“论情绪的生态理性”,第812页。
[42] Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, New York: Putnam, 1994, p.vii.
[43] 具体实验可参阅:Ibid., pp.44-51, 192-195.
[44] Rose Mcdermott, “The Feeling of Rationality: The Meaning of Neuroscientific Advances for Political Science”, p.698.
[45] George E. Marcus, The Sentimental Citizen: Emotion in Democratic Politics, University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002, p.5.
[46] Ibid. , p.7.
[47] Rose Mcdermott, “The Feeling of Rationality: The Meaning of Neuroscientific Advances for Political Science”, p.699.
[48] Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk”, Econometrica, Vol.47, No.2, 1979, pp.263-291. 前景理论在政治科学研究中的应用,基本的研究综述参阅:Jonathan Mercer, “Prospect Theory and Political Science”, Annual Review of Political Science, Vol.8, 2005, pp.1-21. Rose Mcdermott, “Prospect Theory in Political Science: Gains and Losses From the First Decade”, Political Psychology, Vol.25, No.2, 2004, pp.289-312. 林民旺:“前景理论与外交决策”,《外交评论》2006年第5期,第62-68页。
[49] Rose Mcdermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, pp.186-187.
[50] Stephen Rosen, War and Human Nature, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005.
[51] Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics”, p.93.
[53] Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics”, p.97.
[54] Diane M. Mackie, Lisa A. Silver, and Eliot R. Smith, “Intergroup Emotions: Emotion as an Intergroup Phenomenon”, in Larissa Z. Tiedens and Colin Wayne Leach eds. , The Social Life of Emotions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, p.228.
[55] Jonathan Mercer, “Human Nature and the First Image: Emotion in International Politics”, pp.298-299.
[56] Jon Elster, “Rationality and the Emotions”, p.1390.
[57] G. E. Marcus, “Emotions in Politics”; David O. Sears, Leonie Huddy and Robert Jervis, “The Psychologies Underlying Political Psychology”, in David O. Sears, Leonie Huddy and Robert Jervis eds. , Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, New York: OXFORD University Press, 2003, pp.3-18.
[58] Jonathan Mercer, “Human Nature and the First Image: Emotion in International Politics”, pp.299-300. 国际政治心理学研究中,情绪分析的著述可参阅:Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics”. Jonathan Mercer, “Human Nature and the First Image: Emotion in International Politics”. Jonathan Mercer, “Deterrence and Emotional Beliefs”, manuscript. Neta C. Crawford, “The Passion of World Politics: Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships”, International Security, Vol.24, No.4, Spring 2000. Rose Mcdermott, “The Feeling of Rationality: The Meaning of Neuroscientific Advances for Political Science”. Stephen Rosen, War and Human Nature. Todd Hall, Emotional States? Emotional Idioms and International Relations, dissertation manuscript, Chicago University, forthcoming 2008.作者: lijinzhu2000 时间: 2007-12-15 09:37
支持一下作者: 白鹤 时间: 2007-12-15 10:52
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