长期以来,美国一直希望通过成为世界超级强权来保障其安全。冷战结束后,鉴于美国拥有独一无二的军事霸权,盛行的观点确信美国已经完成了其历史使命。但是奈(Joseph Nye Jr.)提出,在经济和跨国关系等方面,美国缺乏绝对优势。[5]这些缺陷导致关注点从由如何管理美国霸权转移到美国优势的脆弱性方面,并成为新战略的推动力量,而这种新战略的核心是让美国具有无与伦比的军事力量。通过这种军事上的超越优势(hyper-preeminence),美国可以不受数量少得可怜的其他全球力量的限制而任意妄为。美国对国家安全的诉求是和希望摆脱潜在的挑战威胁紧密相连的。“突破战略”旨在把美国从潜在威胁和国际体系的结构性束缚(structural constraints)中解放(emancipation)出来。
美国2002年度国家安全战略报告(US National Security Strategy)指出,“美国的军事力量必须可以阻止潜在危险对美国军力的赶超”[31]。这也正是艾肯伯瑞所指的“突破”,他认为作为美国的重要战略,其技术优势的提升一日千里(如机器人、激光、卫星、精确制导等),因此没有任何国家和国家集团可以挑战美国作为全球政治的领导者、捍卫者和实施者的地位。[32] 本文评论的核心是美国大战略的信念,笔者认为,这种信念意味着,国家确信当自身较它的竞争对手无限强大的时候,战争的危险也不断逼近。
国际关系中的解放理论(emancipatory conception of international relations EIR)和“任何认为研究国际关系的主要基础是……改变我们存在的政治社会的理论、话语和范式” [38]都和本文密切相关。这种理论的支持者强调,“将个人、群体和人类从限制其自由的结构或条件中解放出来”。这些限制包括国际体系、主权和国家认同等等。[39] 这个理论学派认为,“国际政治的重点在于确认要解放的目标(emancipatory goal),以及实现这一目标所需要的条件和路径。”[40] 在研究美国“突破战略”时,解放理论(EIR)对于国家、民族、国际体系、安全和国际正义的解读具有深远的影响。
在卡尔(Edward Hallet Carr)的知名的国际现实主义巨著中,他分析了国际社会中的权力角色、法律和冲突解决。[60] 卡尔从军事、经济和公共舆论角度界定了国际权力,他列举了国家诉诸武力、经济制裁和国际宣传来推进外交政策目标的例子。在定义了经济自足的基础上,卡尔也突出了经济权力的重要性。卡尔还把现实中国际宣传和未来的普世价值联系在一起,并认为,既然全人类可以经过宣传而相互认同,那么这将成为全人类共同思想的基础(stock of common ideas)。[61]
软边界对领土是否具有新的意涵?相互依存的发展、通讯手段的飞跃、以及金融全球化的流动等都会影响国家的边界。有学者建议采取软边界和硬边界的区分以便革新主权观念,但“国家边界软化的后果是对内部主权、自我决定和公民权力的重构”[86]。 美国是否有能力控制和部署外太空激光武器,这个问题将引起美国军事战略家和国际关系学者关注软边界问题。同时美国军事战略的变化是否会改变与潜在竞争对手中国和俄罗斯的关系?比斯特科(Thomas J. Biersteker)认为软边界将会对全球治理产生深刻影响:领土和边界意涵和性质的改变对国际关系影响巨大。直接物质的领土控制已经不成为大国纷争的焦点问题。特殊地理位置仍然具有象征意义,但是领土扩张已经不是霸权的内容了。与此同时,使用边界来将外部影响和某一区域人民相隔离的做法也早已过时。普遍的做法是,通过更开放而非封闭来促进这一区域人民的福祉。[87]如果失去有效国家导弹防御体系理论上的保护,软边界就成为终极目标,因此,突破战略和上述讨论关系密切。对于前面列举的所有理由,国家导弹防御体系和太空武器将会保护国家安全和营造新领域的硬边界。
4. David Simon, “Towards a Limited National Missile Defense,” Letter to the Editor, New York Times, July 19, 2001.
5. Nye, 2002, 21-22.
6. US military expenditure in 2003 was $456 billion; world military spending in 2003 was $997 billion. See Military Balance 2004-2005, 262, 358.
7. 2003年, 美国GDP达到11万亿美元,全球 GDP 总额为51.48万亿美元。数据来源:2004年中央情报局全球数据报告(CIA World Factbook 2004), http://www.cia.gov/cia/ publications/factbook/geos/us.html.
8. Stephen G. Brooks and William C. Wohlforth, “American Primacy in Perspective,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 2002, 21-23.
10. For additional analysis of US resources and capabilities, see Seth Johnston, “Perspectives on America’s Role in the World,” Editorial, Oxford International Review, 2004-05.
11. “America’s World,” The Economist, October 23, 1999, 15.
12. Joseph Nye Jr., The Paradox of American Power: Why the World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go It Alone, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, chapter 1.
13. Stephen Brooks and William Wohlforth, “American Primacy in Perspective,” 2002, 1.
14. Philip Stevens, “Second Term, Second Chance for Bush’s Foreign Policy,” Financial Times, January 14, 2005.
15. 参见: Charles Krauthammer, “The Unipolar Moment,” Foreign Affairs, Winter 1990-91, 23-33; Christopher Lane, “The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers Will Rise,” International Security, Spring 1993, 5-51; Charles Kupchan, “After Pax Americana: Benign Power, Regional Integration and the Sources of Stable Multipolarity,” International Security, Fall 1998, 41-79.
16. 对于美国在越南和巴尔干的失利参见: Immanuel Wallerstein, “The Eagle has Crash Landed,” Foreign Policy, July/August 2002, 60; for economic and military arguments about the rise of the European Union and China, see: Charles Kupchan, Emanuel Adler, Jean-Marc Coicad, Yuen Foong Khong, Power in Transition: The Peaceful Change of International Order, New York: United Nations University Press, 2001, 1-3; Joseph Nye Jr., The Paradox of American, 2002, chapter 1.
17. Charles Kupchan, The End of the American, 2003, 26-27.
18. 同上; See also: Charles Krauthammer, “The Unipolar Moment;” Christopher Lane, “The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers Will Rise;” Charles Kupchan, “After Pax Americana: Benign Power, Regional Integration and the Sources of Stable Multipolarity.” For arguments on impact of US failures in Vietnam and the Balkans, see: Immanuel Wallerstein, “The Eagle has Crash Landed;” for economic and military arguments about the rise of the European Union and China, see Charles Kupchan, Emanuel Adler, Jean-Marc Coicad, Yuen Foong Khong, Power in Transition: The Peaceful Change of International Order, 2001; Joseph Nye Jr., The Paradox of American Power, 2002.
19. 笔者认为通过合适的军事政策,美国有能力塑造更为久远的军事环境。在单极时代,美国采取的单边主义行动方法将会为美国的长期野心赋予更大的空间。参见||: Stephen Brooks and William Wohlforth, 2002.
20. 对于制定和美国外交和安全政策相匹配的经济外交政策方面的争论,参见: Henry R. Nau, Trade and Security: US Policies at Cross-Purposes, Washington, DC: AEI Press, 1995. Nau 认为,“贸易政策逐渐和美国其他方面外交政策利益相脱节,它仅仅旨在提高出口和工资水平。”经济民族主义者则持相反的意见,他们指出,“美国的经济利益总要去迎合有问题的安全战略。美国的安全战略必须符合更为进取的经济战略,那怕美国为此从亚洲撤出军事力量。”参见: Chalmers Johnson and E.B. Keehn, “The Pentagon’s Ossified Strategy,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 1995, 104-105.作者: 特仑苏 时间: 2007-8-5 22:59
21. Robert W. Tucker, “The Future of a Contradiction,” The National Interest, Spring 1996, 20. For an extension of Tucker’s analysis, see Michael Mastanduno, “Preserving the Unipolar Moment: Realist Theories and US Grand Strategy after the Cold War,” International Security, Spring, 1997, 87. 作者认为,美国公众日益不愿意“承担全球参与战略的成本,特别是那些美国需要承担责任并成为地区危机平衡者的情况(如波斯尼亚、伊拉克、希土冲突和台海危机)”。
22. On the stability of unipolarity, see William Wohlforth, “The Stability of a Unipolar World,” International Security, Summer 1999, 5-41; and Charles Kupchan, “After Pax Americana: Benign Power, Regional Integration, and the Sources of a Stable Multipolarity,” International Security, Fall 1998, 40-79.
23. Stephen Brooks and William Wohlforth, “American Primacy in Perspective,” 2002.
30. 参见: proceedings of the “National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States,” 以及《“9·11”事件调查委员会报告》, http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/index.htm; 上述引文是由“9·11”事件调查委员会的一位重量级顾问所提出。Stephen Flynn, in his, America the Vulnerable: How Our Government is Failing to Protect Us from Terrorism, 2004, Harper Collins;
32. Ikenberry, “America’s Imperial Ambition,” 2002, 3;目前美国五角大楼宣布实施一系列计划来通过半自动机器人来取代步兵战场作战。Tim Weiner, “A New Model Army Soldier Rolls Closer to the Battlefield.” New York Times, February 16, 2005.
33. “2nd Presidential Debate Between Gov. Bush and Vice President Gore,” New York Times, October 12, 2000, A20.
34. Pascal Bonafice, “The Specter of Unilateralism,” Washington Quarterly, Summer 2001, 155-162.
35. Steven Miller, “The End of Unilateralism Redux?” Washington Quarterly, Winter 2002, 15.
36. Wendt. “Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of International Relations,” International Organization, 46:2, 1992, 394.
37. Robert Cox and Timothy Sinclair, Approaches to World Order, 1996, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 181-186.
38. Andrew Linklater, Transformation of Political Community, 1998.
39. Roger Spegele, “Emancipatory International Relations: Good News, Bad News or No News at All?” International Relations, 2002, 383.
55. James Caporaso, “International Relations Theory and Multilateralism: The Search for Foundations,” Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Praxis of An Institutional Form, (ed.) John Gerard Ruggie, 1993, New York: Columbia University Press, 53.
56. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 1982, Trans. Rex Warner, New York : Penguin Books, 49.
57. Joseph Nye Jr., Understanding International Conflicts: An Introduction to Theory and History, 2000, Cambridge: Harvard University, 180.
58. Hans Morgenthau, Scientific Man Versus Power Politics, 1946, Chicago: Chicago University Press; Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed., Michael Oakeshott, 1962, New York, Simon and Schuster Inc.
59. Hobbes, Ch. 13.
60. Edward Hallett Carr, International Relations between the Two World Wars 1947, London: MacMillan; Nationalism and After, 1945, London: MacMillan; The Twenty Years’ Crisis: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations, 1939, New York: Harper & Row; What is History? 1961, London: Macmillan and Penguin.
61. Carr, Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1939.
62. 同上
63. G. John Ikenberry, David Lake, and Michael Mastanduno, “Introduction: Approaches to Explaining Foreign Economic Policy,” International Organization, Winter 1998, 42:1, 1-14
64. Anthony, Giddens, , Central Problems in Social Theory, 1979, Berkley: University of California Press, 49-95.
65. Caporaso, 1993, 75.
66. Alexander Wendt and Raymond Duvall, “Institutions and International Order,” in Ernst-Otto Czempiel and James N. Rosenau, eds., Global Change and Theoretical Challenges, Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1989, 59.
67. Caporaso, 1993, 66.作者: 特仑苏 时间: 2007-8-5 22:59
68. Jurgen Habermas, The Past as the Future, 1994, Cambridge: Polity Press.
69. 关于生产性权力的讨论参见:Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall, eds., Power in Global Governance, 2005, Cambridge University Press; Stephano Guzzini, “‘Power’ in International Relations: Concept Formation Between Conceptual Analysis and Conceptual History,” paper presented at the International Studies Association, 2002; “The Use and Misuse of Power Analysis in International Theory,” in R. Palan, ed., Global Political Economy: Contemporary Theories. NY: Routledge, 53-66.
70. Michel Foucault, “Afterword: Subject and Power,” in H. Dreyfus and P. Rabinow, eds. Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, 2nd ed., 1983, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
71. Barnett and Duvall, Power in Global Governance, 2005.
72. David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity, 1992, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
73. Jutta Weldes, Constructing National Interests: The United States and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1999, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; Beyond the fixing of meanings, it is also important to note that I am bracketing out Wendtian literature. See Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. 笔者认为卡尔对建构主义本体论和实体论的贡献是非常重要的,但是本文忽略了他关于战略互动的观点,这是因为和评析突破战略无关。
74. David M. Kaplan, Ricoeur’s Critical Theory, 2003, Albany: State University of New York Press, 153.
75. Caporaso, 1993, 66.
76. G.W.F. Hegel. Elements of the Philosophy of Right, 1991, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
77. Andrew Linklater, The Transformation of Political Community, 1998, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 31-32.
78. Jurgen Habermas, Communication and the Evolution of Society, 1979a, London: Heinemann. According to Habermas, knowledge always serves someone or some purpose, is a social and historical product, inseparable from its context.
79. Thomas Risse, “Let’s argue!”: Communicative Action in World Politics,” International Organization, Winter 2000, 1-39.
80. Habermas, The Past as the Future, 1994, Cambridge: Polity Press.
81. Neta Crawford, “Postmodern Ethical Conditions and a Critical Response,” Ethics and International Affairs, 12, 121-40.
82. Linklater, 1998, 119.
83. 同上,第 41页。
84. Alexander B. Murphy, “International Law and the Sovereign State System: Challenges to the Status Quo,” in George J. Demko and William B Woodwood, eds., Reordering the World: Geopolitical Perspectives on the Twenty-First Century, Boulder: Westview, 235.
85. 同上, 第389页。
86. Julie Mostov, “Rethinking Sovereignty, Democracy and the Politics of National Identity,” paper presented at the Watson Institute for International Studies conference on “Whose Self-determination: Agency and the Amnesia in the Disintegration of Yugoslavia,” Brown University, February 4-5, 2000.
87. Thomas J. Biersteker, “State, Sovereignty and Territory,” in Walter Carlsnaees, Thomas Risse, and Beth A. Simmons, eds., Handbook of International Relations, 2003, London: Sage Publications, 166.
89. Ivo H. Daalder and James M. Lindsay, America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign Policy, 2003, Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 125.
90. James Chance and Caleb Carr, America Invulnerable: The Quest for Absolute Security from 1812 to Star Wars, 1988, New York: Simon & Schuster, 320.
91. 对于发展一种范式以融合反扩散和不扩散的研究,参见: Brad Roberts, “From Non-Proliferation to Anti-Proliferation,” International Security, 18:1, Summer 1993, 139-73.
92. William Walker, “Nuclear Order and Disorder,” International Affairs, 76:4, 2000, 716-717.