⑶学术界对预期效用理论较为熟悉, 本文不作具体论述。关于预期效用理论在国际关系研究中取得的成果可参见Bruce Bueno de Mesquita ,“The Contribution of Expected- Utility Theory to the Study of International Conflict,”Handbook of War Studies , ed. Manus I. Midlarsky (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press , 1993) , pp.143- 170.
⑷第四个假定可消性(cancellation)基本上被大多数研究者摈弃了。参见Rose Mcdermott , Risk- Taking in International Politics: Prospect Theory in American Foreign Policy (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press , 1998) , pp.15- 17.
⑹贝叶斯法则指的是对某种概率判断的大小取决于该事件的代表性特征以及基础比率( base rates) 二者的共同作用。人们在形成判断的时候, 往往会低估基础比率信息, 结果, 人们常常会高估代表性特征的作用。
⑺小数定律指的是人们错误地认为小样本和大样本有相同类型的概率分布。
⑻描述性理论和规范性理论的区别在于: 规范性理论是处方性的(prescriptive), 意在能教育指导人们的行为, 是演绎的理论, 理论基础不是来自经验事实; 而描述性理论是基于经验证据, 依靠观察人们的实际行为而来。具体参见Rose Mcdermott , Risk- Taking in International Politics: Prospect Theory in American Foreign Policy (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press , 1998) , pp.12- 13.
⑼主要著作包括Rose Mcdermott , Risk- Taking in International Politics: Prospect Theory in American Foreign Policy (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press , 1998) ; Barbara Farnham ed. , Avoiding Losses/Taking Risks: Prospect Theory and International Conflict (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press , 1995) ; Yaacov Y.I. Vertzberger , Risk Taking and Decision- making: Foreign Military Intervention Decisions , (California: Stanford University Press, 1998); Jeffrey W. Taliaferro, Balancing Risks: Great Power Intervention in the Periphery, (Ithaca , Cornell University Press, 2004); Mark L. Haas , "Prospect Theory and the Cuban Missile Crisis," International Studies Quarterly, Vol.45, No.2, 2001,pp241- 270.从这些研究成果来看,主要是将相对于参考点而言的损失或收益的范围( domain) 作为自变量, 将风险倾向作为因变量来研究。研究的步骤先是确定参考点, 然后考察各个政策选择相对于参考点来说所在的风险位置, 最后是外交的决策。
⑽指决策者由于已经拥有了信息, 而导致对新信息不敏感, 在调整决策上表现不足。
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