注释:
[1] Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, Reading,MS. : Addison - Wesley Press, 1979; Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S.Nye, Power and Interdependence, Glenview: Scott, Foresman, 1989, p.vi.
[2] 华尔兹在 1979年时认为中国在两极体系中不具备大国地位 , 1993年则认为国际体系仍是两极 ,但中国十年内将晋升为主要大国。到了 2003年 ,华尔兹承认中国的大国潜力 ,但认为它要与美国并驾齐驱 ,大概还要 20年。参阅 Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 130; Kenneth N. Waltz,“The Emerging Structure of International Politics, ”International Security, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1993,pp. 61 - 70; Kenneth N. W altz, “Structural Realism after the Cold W ar, ”International Security, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2000, pp. 5 - 41; Kenneth N. Waltz,“Conversations with History, ”Institute of International Studies,UC Berkeley, 2003, http: / / globetrotter. berkeley. edu /peop le3 /W altz/waltz - con0. htm, March 18, 2006。
[3] John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics,New York: W. W. Norton Press, 2001; John J. Mearsheimer,“The Future of the American Pacifier, ”Foreign Affairs , Vol. 80, No. 5, 2001,pp. 46 - 61; John J. Mearsheimer,“Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer ( Part I) , ”International Relations, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2006, pp. 105 - 123.
[4] 华尔兹对“实在 ”的态度模糊 ,虽然他倾向承认实在与理论是相互建构的。参阅 Kenneth N. Waltz, “Evaluating Theories, ”American Political Science Review , Vol. 91, No. 4, 1997, p. 913。对于理论来讲 ,不存在“真 ”的理论与“假 ”的理论 ,判断理论的优劣只需要看其“有用性 ”,不过他仍然力主感官经验可观察的“规律 ”是真实的。在此过程中 ,他并未进一步讨论陈述规律的人类语言工具是否能准确对应实在的问题。主流国际关系学者并不介入此争论 ,而批判新现实主义的学者则几乎一面倒地确认新现实主义学者都是“实证主义者 ”。参阅 Robert Jackson,“Is There a Classical International Theory?”in Steve Smith, Ken Booth and Marysia Zalewski, eds. , International Theory: Positivism and Beyond, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 203 - 218。笔者认为 ,根据华尔兹对“理论 ”性质的分析 ,说他是彻底的实证主义者是不准确的。
[5] Kenneth N. W altz,“Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics, ”in Robert O. Keohane, ed. , Neorealism and Its Critics, New York: Columbia University Press, 1986, p.329; Kenneth N. Waltz,“Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory, ”Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1990, p. 31.
[6] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory, ”pp. 22 - 23.
[7] Kenneth N. Waltz, Man, the State and War, New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.
[8] 无论是华尔兹、米尔斯海默 ,还是其他新现实主义者,主要关注的都是“大国政治 ”。
[9] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics, ”pp. 333 - 334; Glenn H. Snyder,“Mearsheimer’s World: Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security, ”International Security, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2002, pp. 153 - 154.
[10] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics, ”pp. 328 - 331, 343 - 344.郑端耀:《国际关系新自由制度主义理论分析 》,载《问题与研究 》, 1997年第 12期 ,第 7~8页。
[11] 较为激进的批判 , 相关文献参阅 Richard K. Ashley,“The Geopolitics of Geopolitical Space: Toward a Critical Social Theory of International Politics, ”Alternatives, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1987, pp. 403 - 434;
[12] Friedrich Kratochwil,“The Embarrassment of Changes: Neorealism as the Science of Real politik without Politics, ”Review of International S tudies,Vol. 19, 1993, pp. 63 - 80; Chih - yu Shih, Navigating Sovereignty:World Politics Lost in China, London: Macmillian, 2004;石之瑜:《现实主义国际政治学的知识脉络 》,载《问题与研究 》, 2000年第 7期 ,第37~52页; Stephen Hobden and John M. Hobson, eds. , H istorical Sociology of International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2002。
[13] 斯蒂芬 ·沃尔特 ( Stephen Walt)的“威胁平衡理论 ”也是拓展华尔兹原始模型的另一重要支流。他与华尔兹都被视为防御性的现实主义。本文认为 ,突出对比华尔兹与米尔斯海默的异同 ,更有助于反省整个新现实主义。因此 ,本文不涉及沃尔特的贡献。
[14] 格伦 ·斯奈德 ( Glenn H Snyder)提出了一个二乘二的现实主义分类:一方面是古典现实主义与新现实主义 ,另一方面则是守势现实主义与攻势现实主义。据此 ,华尔兹属于新现实主义的守势主义 ,米尔斯海默则是新现实主义的攻势主义。至于古典现实主义中有没有攻守之分 ,斯奈德没有提及。参阅 Glenn H. Snyder,“Mearsheimer’s World: Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security, ”pp.149 - 150。笔者认为 ,强调人性驱使追逐权力最大化的摩根索 ,可以算是古典现实主义的攻势主义。而强调政治家协调均势维持现状的基辛格 ,可算是古典现实主义的守势主义。
[15] John J. Mearsheimer, “The False Promise of International Institutions, ”International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3, 1994, pp. 5 - 49;John J. Mearsheimer, “ E. H. Carr vs. Idealism: The Battle RagesOn, ”International Relations, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2005, pp. 142 - 146.
[16] John J. Mearsheimer, “Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer ( Part II) , ”International Relations, Vol. 20, No. 2, 2006, p. 241.
[17] John J. Mearsheimer,“The False Promise of International Institutions, ”pp. 5 - 49: John J. Mearsheimer,“Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer ( Part I ) , ”pp. 105 - 123.
[18] “自然主义 ”的科学观认为 ,自然世界与社会世界具有相同的因果规律 ,因而适用相同的研究方法 ,这种方法含有主 /客二分的客观主义预设。“非历史 ”的研究取向倾向认为共时性 ( synchronic)的研究可以推及一切时空条件 ,否定历史个案具有的脉络特殊性。“决定论 ”是一种态度 ,这种态度倾向断言社会世界的事件存在着可被发现并予以充分解释的规律性。这三种理论态度导致批判者认为 ,主流国际关系理论 (特别是新现实主义 ) 发现的“事实 ”因此变成僵硬、自成、自律和永久的了。如此一来 ,主流理论容易忽略促发变迁的因素 ,特别是单位行动者的能动性 ,从而成为自己理论所支持的“事实 ”的保守拥护者。此类批评请综合参阅 Friedrich Kratochwil,“The Embarrassment of Changes: Neorealism as the Science of Real politik without Politics, ”Review of International S tudies, Vol. 19, 1993, pp.63 - 80; Stephen Hobden, and John M. Hobson, eds. , Historical Sociology of International Relations, 2002; Colin Wight, “State Agency: Social Action without Human Activity, ”Review of International Studies,Vol. 30, No. 2, 2004, pp. 269 - 280。值得注意的是 ,古典现实主义大师摩根索对这些问题很早便有了预见。参阅 Hans J. Morgenthau,Scientific M an vs. Power Politics, Chicago: Chicago University Press,1946。
[19] John J. Mearsheimer,“E. H. Carr vs. Idealism: The Battle Rages On, ”p. 141; John J. Mearsheimer,“Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer ( Part I) , ”pp. 112 - 114.
[20] 华尔兹曾反复说 ,国际政治理论不能与外交政策理论混为一谈。单位层次的“政治 ”当然是不可取消的 ,但是那需要另一个理论去负责分析 ,而不是新现实主义。参阅 Kenneth N. W altz,“International Politics Is Not Foreign Policy, ”Security S tudies, Vol. 6, No. 1,1996, p. 54。
[21] John J. Mearsheimer, “Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer ( Part I) , ”pp. 109 - 112.John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, pp.30 - 32.
[22] 华尔兹及其后继者约瑟夫 ·格里科 ( Joseph M. Grieco) 的观点认为 ,国家是位置防御者 ( defensive positionalist) 而不是优势至上者 ( gap maxim izer) 。参阅 Joseph M. Grieco, Cooperation am ong Nations: Europe, America, and N on - Tariff Barriers to Trade, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990。
[23] 华尔兹承认 ,评估何者为“大国 ”的具体标准存在模糊之处 ,但他相信常识足以提供正确的判断。参阅 Kenneth N. W altz,Theory of International Politics, pp. 129 - 132, 176 - 181。米尔斯海默则提出较为明确的界说 ,认为大国就是具备足够的军力 ,能与体系最强国从事一场认真而全面的常规战争 ,虽不能战胜 ,却能使最强国重损 ,同时具有足够的核武装 ,在承受了任何可能对手的核子第一击后仍然能存活的国家。参阅 John J. Mearsheimer,“Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer ( Part I) , ”p.113。
[24] Glenn H. Snyder,“Mearsheimer’s World: Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security, ”pp. 153 - 154.
[25] Glenn H. Snyder,“Mearsheimer’s World: Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security, ”p. 151.
[26] Hans Mouritzen,“Kenneth Waltz: A Critical Rationalist between International Politics and Foreign Policy, ”in Iver B. Neumann andO le Waever, eds. , The Future of International Relations, London: Routledge, 1997, pp. 80 - 81.
[27] Kenneth N. Waltz,“Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics, ”pp. 71, 80.
[28] 依照这一推论 ,与华尔兹相比 ,米尔斯海默使“核威慑有助和平 ”的命题打了很大的折扣。参阅 John J. Mearsheimer, “Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer( Part II) , ”p. 240。
[29] 米尔斯海默认为 ,迄今由封锁、轰炸导致对大国的胜利的唯一案例是 1945年美苏击败日本。John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, pp. 92 - 93。
[31] “搭车 ”和“绥靖 ”(让步 ) 被进攻性现实主义认为是小国才会采取的战略 ,以大国关系为主题的国际政治研究不需多所着墨。参阅 John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, pp.163, 267 - 268。
[32] John J. Mearsheimer,“Disorder Restored, ”in Graham Allisonand Gregory F. Treverton, eds. , Rethinking Am erica ’s Security, New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1992, pp. 213 - 237.
[33] Steve Chan,“Realism, Revisionism and Great Powers, ”Issues and S tudies, Vol. 40, No. 1, 2004, pp. 135 - 172.
[35] Yuang - Kang Wang,“Offensive Realism and the R ise of China, ”Issues and Studies, Vol. 40, No. 1, 2004, pp. 173 - 201.
[36] 有些研究认为 ,美国对全世界已经取得完全的核优势 ,参阅Keir A. L ieber and Daryl G. Press,“The Rise of US Nuclear Primacy, ”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 85, No. 2, 2006。
[37] 参见 Joseph S. Nye, J r. , The Paradox of American Power:Why the World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go A long, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 1。
[39] Rosemary Foot, The Practice of Power: U. S. Relations with China since 1949, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 9 - 10;Condoleezza R ice,“Promoting the National Interest, ”Foreign Affairs,Vol. 79, No. 1, 2000, p. 56.
[41] David M. Lamp ton, Sam e B ed, Different Dreams: ManagingU. S. - China Relations, 1989 - 2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, p. 235;谢益显编:《中国外交史 1949~1979》,郑州:河南人民出版社 , 1988年版 ,第 150页。
[43] George Friedman, and Meredith LeBard, The Com ing Warw ithJapan, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991; Michael Mastanduno,“Do Relative Gains Matter? America’s Response to Japanese Industrial Policy, ”International Security, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1991, p. 74.
[44] M ichael J. Green, Patrick M. Cronin, The US - Japan Alliance: Past, Present and Future, New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1999.
[47] Norimitsu Onishi, “Japanese Leaders Picks a New Cabinet Strong on Nationalism, ”New York Times, October 31, 2005, A1.
[48] Winston Lord,“US Must Allocate Resources to Back Securities Policies in Asia, ”A IT Text File BG - 95 - 24,Washington, D. C. : A IT,1996.
[49] 臧志军:《面向 21世纪的日本对外战略 》,载俞正梁等:《大国战略研究 》, 北京: 中央编译出版社 , 1998 年版; B in Yu, The China - Japan - US Triangle: Some Random Thoughts and Modest Proposals, Honolulu: CSIS, 2005。
[50] 例见 Thom Shanker,“Chinese Navy Build - up Gives Pentagon New Worries, ”New York Tim es, April 8, 2005, A1; Conn Hallinan,“Cornering the Dragon, ”Asian Times, March 2, 2005; http: / /www.atimes. com / atimes/China / GC02Ad08. htm l, 2006年 1月 9日。
[53] 邱坤玄:《冷战后**与朝鲜半岛的权力平衡 》,载《中国事务 》(台北 ) , 2001年第 4期 ,第 90~102页; Lee Lai To, “China, USA and the South China Sea Conflicts, ”Security Dialogue , Vol. 34, No. 1,2003, pp. 25 - 39。
[55] Joseph E. De Trani, S ix - Party Talks and China: Role as an Intermediary in the Process,Washington, D. C. : US - China Economic Security Review Commission, 2005; Lee Lai To,“China, USA and the South China Sea Conflicts, ”pp. 25 - 39.
[56] Evan S. Medeiros and M. Taylor Fravel,“China’s New D ip lomacy, ”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 6, 2003, pp. 22 - 35; R. B.Zoellick, W hither China: From Membership to Responsibility, New York:National Committee on US - China Relations, September 21, 2005,pp. 1 - 8.
[57] W ang J isi,“China’s Search for Stability with America, ”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 84, No. 5, 2005, pp. 39 - 48; You J i,“Understanding China’s North Korea Policy, ”p. 5.
[59] Jae Ho Chung,“South Korea between Eagle and Dragon, ”Asian Survey, Vol. 41, No. 5, 2001, pp. 778 - 790; David C. Kang,“No Progress in Bush’s Term for the North Korean Crisis, ”Oriental Morning Post, January 21, 2005, p. A5.
[60] “火神队 ”形成于小布什 2000年竞选总统的国政团队 ,成员对宗教虔诚 , 主张强势的美国外交。“火神 ”指美国国务卿赖斯(Condoleezza R ice)的故乡亚拉巴马州的罗马火神雕像。外界认为该组合大致包括赖斯、前国防部长拉姆斯菲尔德、副总统切尼 (D ickCheney) 、前国防部副部长沃尔福威茨 ( Paul Wolfowitz)和前副国务卿阿米蒂奇 (Richard Armitage)等人。参阅 JamesMann, Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet, New York: V iking, 2004。
[61] 叶自成编:《地缘政治与中国外交 》, 北京: 北京出版社 ,1998年版 , 第 343 页; Richard F. Staar, Foreign Policies of the Soviet Union, Stanford: Stanford University, 1991, p. 285。
[64] David Kerr,“The New Eurasianism: The R ise of Geopolitics in Russia’s Foreign Policy, ”Europe - Asia Studies, Vol. 47, No. 6, 1995,pp. 977 - 988.
[65] 参阅 S. Neil MacFarlane, “The‘R ’in BR ICs: Is Russia anEmerging Power?”International Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 1, 2006, pp. 48 -55。
[66] Eugene B. Rumer and Celeste A. Wallander, “Russia: Powerin Weakness, ”The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2003,pp. 57 - 65.
[67] Zhang L. , “Border Solutions Sees Precedent, ”Beijing Review ,Vol. 47, 2005, p. 16. 2004年 10月 14日 ,中俄签订了《中俄国界东段补充协定 》, 参阅 http: / / news. sina. com. cn / c /2006 - 06 - 20 /16059252948 s. shtm l, 2008年 12月 23日。
[68] Samuel P. Huntington, “The Lonely Superpower, ”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 78, No. 2, 1999, pp. 44 - 45; 方天赐:《评析中国总理温Jiabao的南亚之行 》,载《展望与探索 》, 2005年第 7期 ,第 101~110页。
[69] 孟吉斯 (Constantine C. Menges)是里根时期总统助理 ,且曾任职于美国中情局的著名新保守主义学者。他认为上海合作组织正规军达到 360万 ,将成为新的华沙条约。参见 C. C. Menges, China:The Gathering Threat, Plano TX: Nelson Current, 2005。
[70] Sean L. Yom,“Power Politics in Central A sia, ”Harvard AsianQ uarterly, Vol. 6, No. 4, 2002, http: / /www. asiaquarterly. com / content/view /129 /40, accessed on March 18, 2006.
[71] Svante E. Cornell and Regine A. Spector, “Central A sia:More than Islamic Extremists, ”The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, No.1, 2002, pp. 193 - 206; J isi Wang,“China’s Search for Stability with America, ”Foreign Affairs, Vol. 84, No. 5, 2005, p. 85.
[72] Svante E. Cornell and Regine A. Spector, “Central Asia:More than Islamic Extrem ists, ”p. 199.
[73] 俄罗斯国内其实存在不小的“中国威胁论 ”声浪。这不是因为中国军事“威胁 ”了俄罗斯 ,而是因为俄罗斯西伯利亚人口不仅稀少 ,而且还在缩减之中。相反 ,中国商贸等人士在该地区却日益增多。参阅叶自成:《中国大战略 》,北京: 社会科学文献出版社 , 2003年版 ,第 261页; S. Neil MacFarlane,“The‘R’in BR ICs: Is Russia an Emerging Power?”p. 55。
[74] 华尔兹以国际政治的观点捍卫自由价值。他根据康德 ( Immanuel Kant)的理想指出 ,单极的世界政府观念必将箝制自由、走向恐怖专制。人类的安全和自由 ,必须用制衡来保卫 ,而不是全球的中央集权。参阅 Kenneth N. Waltz,“America as Model for the World? A Foreign Policy Perspective, ”Political Science and Politics, Vol. 24, No.4, 1991, pp. 667 - 670。
[75] Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 251;Barry Buzan, “Rethinking System and Structure, ” in Barry Buzan,Charles Jones and Richard Little, eds. , The Logic of Anarchy: Neo-realism to Structural Realism , New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, p.23.
[76] Kenneth N. Waltz,“Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics, ”p. 339.
[77] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Evaluating Theories, ”American Political Science Review , Vol. 91, No. 4, 1997, p. 913.
[78] John J. Mearsheimer,“E. H. Carr vs. Idealism: The Battle Rages On, ”p. 148.作者: ereader 时间: 2009-6-26 17:47
谢谢版主辛苦劳动啊