伊拉克战争爆发后,美国许多军事战略学领域的学者开始将目光转向先发制人战争研究,其中有代表性的研究成果是丹尼尔·扎贾克(Daniel L. Zajac) 所撰写的研究报告《最好的防御是进攻》。该研究报告从预防性自卫的基础和理论渊源谈起,从军事学的角度考察了先发制人战争和预防性战争之间的区别与联系。这一研究报告的不足之处主要表现在其选取的个案往往涵盖了侵略战争、预防性战争和先发制人战争,模糊了它们之间的界限,使先发制人战略的研究有泛化的趋势。
“9. 11”事件后,非国家行为体对国际安全提出了新的挑战,国际关系学界对反恐时代正义战争的标准亦重新进行了审视。阿伦(Anthony Clark Arend) 在《恐怖主义和正义战争原则》一文中指出,反恐时代中针对恐怖主义采取的先发制人打击的伦理标准必须加以改变。首先,就合法当局而言,发动战争的权力应完全交给行政部门,因为只有扩大行政部门的权限才能够在未来及时阻止恐怖袭击事件。其次,就正义事业而言,需要将恐怖袭击视为武装进攻,对驻外使领馆和军事基地的袭击也属于武装进攻的范围,从而确保国家享有自卫权。第三,就最后选择而言,如果受恐怖主义威胁的国家将诉诸武力作为最后手段,就会使它难以有效地采取反恐行动,减少损失。至于在反恐战争爆发后采取军事行动的合法性问题,阿伦认为,相称性原则应充分考虑到对恐怖分子形成强大的威慑力,从而迫使其在随后放弃恐怖活动的因素;由于恐怖分子常常以平民作掩护,因此必须将打击对象扩大为恐怖分子训练营、训练设备以及向恐怖分子提供庇护与资助的国家和组织。[10]
[1]David Tucker , Counter2Terrorism and the Perils of Preemption Problems of Command and Control ,in Betty Glad and Chris J . Dolan ( eds. ) , Striking First : The Preventive War Doctrine and the Reshaping of U. S .Foreign Policy ,New York : Palgrave , 2004 ,pp. 75~87.
[2]Phil Williams , Donald M. Goldstein and Jay M.Shafritz , 2006 ,p. 684.
[3]Alexander T. J . Lennon and Camille Eiss(eds. ) , 2004 , p. 74.
[4]Phil Williams , DonaldM. Goldstein and JayM.Shafritz , Classic Readings and Contemporary Debates in International Relations , Australia : Thomson Wadsworth ,2006 ,p. 680.
[5]Alexander T. J . Lennon and Camille Eiss (eds. ) , Reshaping Rogue States : Preemption , Regime
[6]Change , and U. S . Policy toward Iran , Iraq , and NorthKorea ,Cambridge , Massachusetts , and London , England :The MIT Press ,2004 ,p. 47.
[7]Russell D. Howard and Reid L. Sawyer ,Defeating Terrorism : Shaping the New Security Environment , Guilford , Connecticut : McGraw2Hill , 2004 ,p. 125.
[8]Karl P. Mueller , etc. , Striking First :Preemptive and Preventive Attack in U. S . National Security
[9]Policy , Santa Monica , CA: Rand Corporation , 2006 ,Chapter 2.
[10]Charles J . Beck , Is the Bush Doctrine the RightAmerican National Security Strategy for the Beginning of the21st . Century ?, Carlisle , PA: U. S. Army War College ,2005 , pp. 11~14.
[11]Anthony Clark Arend , Terrorism and Just Waroctrine , in Russell D. Howard and Reid L. Sawyer
[12]( eds. ) , Terrorism and Counterterrorism , Guilford ,Connecticut : McGraw2Hill ,2004 ,pp. 350~353.
[13]Bruno Coppieters and Nick Fotion ( eds. ) ,Moral Constraints on War : Principles and Cases , Lanham:Lexington Books ,2002 ,p. 36.
[14]Elizabeth A. Castelli and Janet R. Jakobsen(eds. ) , Interventions : Activists and Academics Respond to Violence , New York : Palgrave Macmillan , 2004 , p. 92 ,p. 96.
[15]Joan Fitzpatrick , Speaking Law to Power : The Law Against Terrorism and Human Rights , European Journal of International Law ,Vol. 14 ,No. 2 ,2003.
[16]Timothy Shanahan ( ed. ) , Philosophy 9P11 :Thing about the War on Terrorism ,Chicago :Open Court ,2005 ,p. 138.
[17]Russell D. Howard and Reid L. Sawyer ,Terrorism and Counterterrorism , Guilford , Connecticut :
[18]McGraw2Hill , 2004 , pp. 345~349. 也可参见刘阿明:《布什主义与新帝国论》,时事出版社,2005 年,第167~168 页。
[19]Michael Reisman , Assessing Claims to Revise the Laws of War , The American Journal of International Law ,Vol. 97 ,No. 1 ,2003 ,p. 85.
[20]Alan M. Dershowitz , Preemption : A Knife Teat Cuts Both Ways ,New York : W. W. Norton & Company ,2006 , pp. 209~210.
[21]学Tom Frame , Living by the Sword ? The Ethics of Armed Intervention , Sydney , Australia : UNSW Press ,2004 ,pp. 198~204.
[22]John T. Rourke , Taking Sides : Clashing Views in World Politics ,Dubuque : MaGraw2Hill ,2007 ,p. 211. Daniel S. Papp , Loch K. Hohnson and Hohn E.Endicott ,American Foreign Policy : History , Politics , and Policy , New York : Pearson Longman , 2005 , pp. 218 ~221.
[23]William W. Keller and Gordon R. Mitchell ,2006 ,p. 68.
[24]Steven J . Brams , Superpower Games : Applying Game Theory to Superpower Conflict , New Haven and London : Yale University Press ,1985 ,pp. 22~27.
[25]William W. Keller and Gordon R. Mitchell (eds. ) , Hitting First : Preventive Force in U. S . Security Strategy , Pittsburgh , Pa. : University of Pittsburgh Press ,2006.
[26]John Lewis Gaddis , Surprise , Security , and the American Experience , Cambridge : Harvard University Press ,2004 ,pp. 12~18.
[27]Robert J . Pauly Jr. and Tom Lansford , Strategic Preemption : US Foreign Policy and the Second Iraq War , Burlington : Ashgate ,2005 ,p. 41.Lawrence Freedman , Deterrence , Cambridge , UK:Polity ,2004.
[28]Carl Bildt ,Pre2Emptive Military Action and the Legitimacy of the Use of Force : An European Perspective ,ESF Working Paper ,No. 11 ,February 2003 ,pp. 4~8.
[29]Dan Reiter , Preventive War and Its Alternatives :the Lessons of History , Carlisle , PA: Strategic Studies Institute ,2006 ,p. v.
[30]Steven Rosefielde and D.QuinnMills ,Masters of Illusion : American Leadership in the Media Age , NewYork : Cambridge University Press ,2007 ,pp. 320~324.
[31]Douglas Keller , From 9P11 to Terror War : the Dangers of the Bush Legacy ,Lanbam: Rowman &Lifflefield Publishers ,2003 ,pp. 290~291.作者: someday 时间: 2009-8-10 16:42
顶顶顶……作者: someday 时间: 2009-8-10 16:43