对现实主义在20世纪50年代的兴起和发展,约翰·赫茨(John H. Herz),他与卡尔(E.H. Carr)、摩根索(Hans Morgenthau)和尼布尔(Reinhold Niebuhr)等人一道被公认为这一学派的奠基之父。[①]不过相比之下,他还是显得鲜为人知。虽然其“安全两难”模型在教科书上广为引用,在国际关系研究者中也已成为一种通行用法,但是他有关国际政治的大量论著很少受到关注。[②]然而,在重读赫茨的著述后,我们不禁疑惑用“现实主义”这个肤浅的标签来评价其思想的复杂性是否公允。实际上,他的大部分著作对现实主义教条作了相当多的保留。
因此,评估他对国际关系理论的贡献,首先,就这项工作本身而言,值得我们竭力而为;其次,赫茨的思想发展典型地反映了一位见证并研究过几乎整个20世纪(甚至更远)的知识分子的“朝圣之旅”。[③]1908年9月23日,赫茨出生于杜塞尔多夫,当时尚处于德皇统治时期。他原名汉斯·赫尔曼·赫茨(Hans Hermann Herz),是一对富裕的中产阶级犹太夫妇的长子。在魏玛共和国时期成长起来的赫茨于1935年逃离了希特勒德国,迁往日内瓦,并最终在1938年定居美国。2005年12月26日,赫茨卒于纽约州斯卡斯代尔(Scarsdale)市,终年97岁。
从1939年至1941年,赫茨在普林斯顿高级研究所担任爱德华·厄尔(Edward M. Earle)的研究助手,其间有机会研究无政府的现代国家体系。在普林斯顿的时光是一段深刻影响个人发展的经历:他开始接触美国式的学术生活,[25]在温伯格(Albert Weinberg,《天定命运论》的作者)等厄尔的研讨班成员的引导下,他对当时美国外交政策中的关键历史思想和趋势了然于胸。
通过倡导一种“最低的生存道德”,[74]赫茨克服了传统现实主义在道德与权力之间的分离。他相信人类所面临的危险如此之大,迫使他们将所有人高于一切的长远利益置于直接的个人利益之上。因此,他不遗余力地呼吁在态度和政策上作根本的变化,把注意力从个人和组织的利益中转移出来,以创造一种对人类生存需求的自觉意识。在生命临近结束之际,赫茨问道:“我真的陷入了理想主义的乌托邦之中了么?”[75]有些迹象表明,他的确如此。依照米尔斯海默的标准,[76]赫茨肯定应该算得上一个理想主义者:理想主义者们相信,改变世界势在必行,并且希望把世界变成一个巨大的“安全共同体”,[77]在其中,国家依据道德行事,遵守国际法,也彼此尊重对方。他们的论点是,一切政治行动的指向不应是国家,而是个人或者作为整体的人类。然而,赫茨坚持认为可付诸现实的理想有别于乌托邦式的痴心妄想:“我始终为乌托邦式的前景而奋斗,但认为可以实现的议程与政治现实主义是一致的。一种现实的理想主义能够推动进步和人道主义的理想,也可以实现生存目标”。[78]他也并非唯一具有理想主义见解的现实主义者。乔治·凯南(George F. Kennan)这位标志性的现实主义者也曾写道,“当前,我们的世界面临着两种前所未有的空前危险。其中之一并不仅仅是核战争的危险,而是所有工业强国之间发生任何战争的危险——现代技术使得这一举动无疑自取灭亡。另一个则是现代工业化以及相对于世界自然环境而言的人口过剩带来的毁灭效应……我们需要优先考虑如何规避这两种最大的危险,除了道德之外,完全建立在理性基础之上——国家利益的基础”。[79]
[①] See e.g. Anette Freyberg-Inan, What Moves Man:The Realist Theory of International Relations and its Judgement of Human Nature, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2004, p. 67. 尽管迈克尔·史密斯(Michael J. Smith)没有把赫茨收入他为著名现实主义者画像的文集中,他在序言中提到,“我们还可以加上约翰·赫茨”。See Michael J. Smith, Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger,Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana University Press 1983, p. 2.
[②] 有一篇佳作是值得称赞的例外:Peter Stirk, “John H. Herz: Realism and the Fragility of the International Order”, Review of International Studies, 31(2), 2005, pp. 285–306. 赫茨的学术兴趣几乎可以在比较政治与国际关系理论和分析之间平等划分。
[③] See John H. Herz, The Nation State and the Crisis of World Politics, Essays on International Politics in the Twentieth Century, New York: D. McKay, 1976, p. 3. 对这一朝圣之旅的简评,参见Christian Hacke, “Ein Rückblier ant John Herz: Assenpolitischer Realismus Mit idealistischen Zügen”, Neue Zuricher Zeitung, 14 February 2006, p. 5.
[④] John H. Herz, “An Internationalist’s Journey through the Century”, in Joseph Kruzel and J. Rosenau, eds., Journeys through World Politics: Reflections of Thirty-four Academic Travellers, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989, p. 249.
[⑤] 此段引语出自赫茨自己对歌德《浮士德》的引用。See John H. Herz, Vom Überleben. Wie ein Weltbild entstand, Düsseldorf: Droste, 1984, p. 48.
[⑥] See Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism: A Study in Theories and Realities, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1951, pp. 43–128. 在赫茨看来,乌托邦是一种把所有问题归结为单一原因的世界观合乎逻辑的结果,这种世界观忽视了现实主义的洞见,比如安全两难。本着这种认识,他否定了早期布尔斯维克认为阶级社会能够创造一个由和平共处的国家构成的世界的思想。See also Herz, Vom Überleben, p. 162 et seq.
[⑦] Herz, Vom Überleben, p. 9.
[⑧] John H. Herz, Staatenwelt und Weltpolitik. Aufsätze zur internationalen Politik im Nuklearzeitalter , Hamburg: Hoffmann and Campe, 1974, p. 9.
[⑨] Herz, Staatenwelt und Weltpolitik.
[⑩] 赫茨长于德国政府与政治。比如他曾合著了一本教科书: Gwendolen M. Carter and John H. Herz, Major Foreign Powers: The Governments of Great Britain, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union, 3rd edn, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1957.
[11] See e.g. Alfons Söllner, “From Public Law to Political Science? The Emigration of German Scholars after 1933 and Their Influence on the Transformation of a Discipline”, in Mitchell G. Ash and Alfons Söllner, eds., Forced Migration and Scientific Change: Émigré German-Speaking Scientists and Scholars after 1933 , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
[12] See Hans Kelsen, Hauptprobleme der Staatsrechtslehre (Aalen: Scientia Verlag, 1960) and Reine Rechtslehre, 2nd edn (Aalen: Scientia Verlag, 1994).
[13] Herz, Vom Überleben, p. 96.
[14] See John H. Herz, “Technology, Ethics, and International Relations”, Social Research, 43(1), 1976, pp. 107–108. See also Herz, Vom Überleben, p. 80.
[15] Hans Herz [John H. Herz], Die Identität des Staates, Düsseldorf: n.p., 1931.
[16] Herz, Die Identität des Staates.
[17] See Herz, Die Identität des Staates, pp. 6–7 (fn 7). 对于古典现实主义的观点,可参见Hans J. Morgenthau, Proceedings, 68th Annual Meeting of the American Society of International Law, Washington DC: n.p., 1975, p. 332.
[18] Herz, The Nation State and the Crisis of World Politics, p. 6.
[19] Eduard Bristler (John H. Herz), Die Völkerrechtslehre des Nationalsozialismus, Zürich: Europaverlag, 1938.
[20] Herz, “An Internationalist’s Journey through the Century”, p. 248. 赫茨晚近对施密特的评价,参见John H. Herz, “Looking at Carl Schmitt from the Vantage Point of the 1990s”, Interpretation, 19, 1992, p. 308。
[21] See John H. Herz, “Ossip K. Flechtheim (1909–1998). Wissenschaftler und Aktivist”, in Kurt Düwell et al. eds., Vertreibung jüdischer Künstler und Wissenschaftler aus Düsseldorf 1933–1945, Düsseldorf: Droste, 1998, p. 158.
[22] John H. Herz, “Reflections on my Century”, in Ralph Bunche Institute on the United Nations, ed., Occasional Paper Series, Special Issue 1998, pp. 1–15, at p. 1.
[23] Herz, “An Internationalist’s Journey through the Century”, p. 249.
[24] John H. Herz, “Political Realism Revisited”, International Studies Quarterly, 25(2), 1981, p. 183.
[26] John H. Herz, “Power Politics and World Organization”, American Political Science Review, 36(6), 1942, pp. 1039–1052.
[27] Herz, “Power Politics and World Organization”, p. 1040.
[28] Herz, “Power Politics and World Organization”, p. 1047.
[29] See Herz, “Power Politics and World Organization”, p. 1049.
[30] See Herz, Vom Überleben, pp. 140–142. 威廉·弗里克这位臭名昭著的纳粹政客和前内务部长被判处死刑,赫茨曾在法庭上对其提出质询。
[31] Herz, “Internationalist’s Journey”, p. 252. 这种沮丧促使赫茨发表了下面这篇文章: John H. Herz, “The Fiasco of Denazification”, Political Science Quarterly, 63(4), 1948, pp. 569–594.
[32] Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism.
[33] Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations:The Struggle for Power and Peace , New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948, and Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1932.
[34] “由权力竞争的普遍现象得出实际存在与生俱来的‘权力本能’的结论是错误的”。Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism, p. 4.
[35] Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism, p. 14.
[36] See Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism.
[37] Herz, “Power Politics and World Organization”, p. 1040:“对这一体系进行改革的任何提案,应该从实现其对每个成员施加强制力着手,而且其对每个独立单元的政策具有难以回避的影响力”。
[38] See Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics, Reading, MA: McGraw-Hill, 1979. 下文引用了赫茨的看法。
[39] See the forthcoming book by Ken Booth and Nicholas J. Wheeler, The Security Dilemma: Fear, Cooperation and Trust in World Politics, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, p. 4 of the draft version. 拜他们所赐,作者有幸得以阅读书稿。
[40] Booth and Wheeler, The Security Dilemma, p. 5.
[41] 关于这些改进的确切性质,参见Booth and Wheeler, The Security Dilemma, p. 6。
[42] 正如肯·布思和尼克·惠勒(Nick Wheeler)在他们即将出版的关于安全两难的著作中指出的,20世纪50年代末,赫茨扩展了其对安全两难所作的解释,调和了诸如扩张和野心等动机:“这一举动意义深远,其论证与其对安全两难的最初直觉相去甚远”。See Booth and Wheeler, The Security Dilemma, p. 25.
[43] See John J. Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, New York: W. W. Norton, 2001, p. 36, and Glenn H. Snyder’s critique “Mearsheimer’s World,Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security: A Review Essay”, International Security, 27(1), 2002, p. 156. 米尔斯海默近来再次表示,他与赫茨并无太大分歧。See Ken Booth, Nicholas J. Wheeler and Michael Williams, “Conversations in International Relations: Interview with John J. Mearsheimer (Part I)”, International Relations, 20(1), 2006, p. 122.
[44] Herz, The Nation State and the Crisis of World Politics, p. 10.
[45] Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism, p. 131.
[46] Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism.
[47] See Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism, pp. 146f.
[48] Herz, Political Realism and Political Idealism, pp. 228f.
[49] Herz, Vom Überleben, p. 168.“intellektuelles Schmerzenskind”是一个典型的德语构词,大致可以译为“智力难题”(intellectual problem child),问题不在于书中核心的学术概念,而在于此书所获得的学术关注有限。
[51] 此书获得成功至少部分应归功于其非常令人瞩目的序言,在其中,赫茨把自己排除在美国社会科学中数量化和概念化的主流趋势之外,坚定地呼吁回归传统的科学方法。赫茨写道:“这是本因循守旧的书。它既不是协力完成的结果,也不是任何类似于小组研究或集体调查之产物。它不是一次讨论会的结果,也不是作者充当报道员的研讨会议的产物。它并不是从一个系列演讲中产生出来的,也不是建立在一次实地考察旅行或者任何目标宽泛的旅行基础上。在此书准备过程中,作者不曾用到任何一种IBM的设备,也没有为此作任何访谈(不论深入与否)。没有任何民意测验,也没有分发问卷。事实上,此书没有一个表格、图表、图片、图形或者统计数字。它只是用任何可以利用的聪明才智来解决手头上的问题和主题的结果”。John H. Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, New York: Columbia University Press, 1959, p. v.
[52] See John H. Herz, “Foreign Policy and Human Survival”, in George Schwab, ed., United States Foreign Policy at the Crossroads, Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982, p. 166.
[53] Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, pp. 49–61.
[54] See Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, pp. 231–243.
[55] Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, p. 12.
[56] Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, p. 311.
[57] Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, p. 309.
[58] 在1984年写作时,赫茨重新作了估计,认为真正的普世主义政策的时机尚未到来。实际上,回顾《核时代的国际政治》一书出版之时,赫茨说自己这个“老牌的悲观主义者”有那么一点“乐观主义者”的味道。See Herz, Vom Überleben, p. 184.
[59] See Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, pp. 244–299.
[60] 从20世纪40年代起,他在讲述国际政治时,总是从介绍“我们时代的伟大变革”开始,其中对这些作了强调。See Herz, The Nation State and the Crisis of World Politics, p. 4 (fn 3).
[61] John H. Herz, “Reflections on my Century”, pp. 1–15.
[62] 见赫茨2002年1月2日致克里斯蒂安·哈克的信(此信由作者保管)。
[63] Letter to Hacke, 2 January 2002.
[64] See John H. Herz, “The Security Dilemma in International Relations: Background and Present Problems”, International Relations, 17(4), 2003, pp. 414f.
[65] Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, p. 305.
[66] John H. Herz, “On Human Survival: Reflections on Survival Research and Survival Policies”, in Ervin Lazlo and Peter Seidel, eds., Global Survival: The Challenge and its Implications for Thinking and Acting, New York: Select Books, 2006, p. 15.
[68] Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age, pp. 7–8.
[69] So does Jack Donnelly, Realism and International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 11 (尽管他也把赫茨归为“有保留的现实主义者”,p. 12).
[70] Stirk, “John H. Herz: Realism and the Fragility of the International Order”, p. 288.
[71] John H. Herz, “Reflections on my Century”, p. 1.
[72] E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations, 2nd edn , New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001, p. 87.
[73] Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis.
[74] Herz, “Technology, Ethics, and International Relations”, pp. 107f.
[75] John H. Herz, “Letter to the Morgenthau Conference”, in Christian Hacke, Gottfried-Karl Kindermann and Kai Schellhorn, eds,, The Heritage, Challenge, and Future of Realism: In Memoriam Hans Morgenthau (1904–1980), Bonn: Bonn University Press, 2005, p. 27.
[76] See John J. Mearsheimer, “E. H. Carr vs. Idealism: The Battle Rages On”, International Relations, 16(2), 2005, pp. 139–152.
[77] See Karl W. Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957.
[78] Herz, “On Human Survival”, p. 24. See also Christian Hacke, “John H. Herz, A Remembrance’, American Foreign Policy Interests, 28(2), 2006, pp. 155–158.
[79] George F. Kennan, “Morality and Foreign Policy”, Foreign Affairs, 64(2), 1985/6, p. 216.
[80] Kenneth Thompson, Masters of International Thought, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1980, p. 112.
[81] See especially Ken Booth, “Security in Anarchy: Utopian Realism in Theory and Practice”, International Affairs, 67(3), 1991, pp. 527–545, and the forthcoming book by Booth and Wheeler, The Security Dilemma.