第四种路径将情绪看作是理性的本质要素。情绪不仅仅是刺激的产物,它建构利益并引起行为。情绪远不只是一种副现象,它使得理性成为可能。正如哲学家罗纳德·德·苏泽(Ronald de Sousa)论述的那样:一个没有情绪的人“将是一个笨蛋,比布里丹(Buridan)笔下死于面对两根等距的胡萝卜而无法抉择的蠢驴更不幸。”[30]对于理性而言,情绪必不可少,这已为神经科学家所证实。神经科学家安东尼奥·达马西奥(Antonio Damasio)发现,“情绪和感情的某些方面是理性所不可或缺的。乐观而言,在决策中,感情为我们指引正确的方向,并将我们带到合适的地方,在这种地方我们就能正确使用逻辑工具。”[31]达马西奥记录了一些病人的情况,这些大脑前叶已遭损害的病人,仍具有记忆、语言和其他认知技能,但是失去了“感受”能力或已无情绪。他们能够“认知却无法感受。”[32]他们失去了有效地进行选择的能力。由于没有情绪,当他们被要求做一些微不足道的决定时,就陷入了一种永无止境的成本-收益分析之中。[33]情绪的缺失使得人们成了非理性。正如一位人工智能研究者马文·明斯基(Marvin Minsky)指出的那样:“问题的关键不是智能机器能否拥有一些情绪,而是机器在缺少情绪的情况下,是否还是智能的。”[34]
情绪(广义)包含理性(狭义)。理性可以被看作是情绪中的一种。尽管在许多情境中,一般认为,贪婪具有社会学意义上的适当性(由于受如此尊敬,它们不再认为是情绪了),而在其他情境中,被认为适当性的情绪不一(如军事单位具有团体精神[esprit ed corps]或者团体为正义而战)。狭义而言的理性并不能解释战士在战场上的牺牲行为。宽泛定义的理性能解释任何事情,只要在行为的基础上设定一种偏好(或嗜好),然后通过设定的偏好来解释这种行为。同理,情绪路径也会走向不归路,由此不能证伪。例如,在科林斯提供的决策理论中,情绪不仅决定选择,而且决定所有物质生产。[37]
分析者着手分析情绪时应格外小心,避免陷入一些陷阱,如把情绪看作只是导致非理性的东西、只是结果而非原因,或者认为情绪只适合第一意象的分析路径。情绪既可以是异质的(idiosyncratic),也可以是系统的;它既能损害理性,但甚至同时是理性的必需;情绪可以成为第一意象路径的一部分,但第二或第三意象的路径也可以运用情绪来解释行为或解决问题。总之,情绪是一种复杂的现象,对那些有志于更好地理解以下主题——如个体如何框架信息、认同的角色、以及国际规范的影响——之士而言,值得进一步的研究。正如罗德尼·布鲁斯·霍尔(Rodney Bruce Hall)指出,更好的理解人们是如何成为自身的(而不是我们希望他们如何)会强化我们的政治学理论。[70]在国际关系学中,分析者运用情绪分析重要的经验和理论问题取得了多大程度的成功,这一问题因时间太早而无法评述,但已有足够的事实表明这种努力是值得肯定的。
(中国人民大学国际关系学院博士研究生尹继武、北京师范大学哲学与社会学学院博士研究生陈高华译)
* 本文原载于《国际关系与发展杂志》2006年第19卷第3期(Journal of International Relations and Development,Vol.9, No.3, 2006, pp.288-303.),读者可在http//:www.palgrave-journals.com/jird/index.html网址上查阅该英文全文。感谢《国际关系与发展杂志》授予本刊中文免费独家刊载权,也感谢译者尹继武在其中所做的联络工作。
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[7] Albert Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism before Its Triumph, pp.41-42.
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[10] Russell Hardin, One for All: The Logic of Group Conflict, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995.
[11] Russell Hardin, One for All: The Logic of Group Conflict, p.46.
[12] Ibid.
[13] René Descartes, “The Passions of the Soul”, in translators, John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff and Dugald Murdoch, The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, Vol.1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1649/1984, p.347.
[14] Russell Hardin, One for All: The Logic of Group Conflict, p.70.
[15] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976.
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[19] Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis, p.112.
[20] Jon Elster, Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences, p.70.
[21] 这方面的研究综述见:Matthew Rabin, “A Perspective on Psychology and Economics”, In European Economics Review, Vol.46, No.4, 2002, pp.657-685; Esther-Mirjam Sent, “Behavioral Economics: How Psychology Made its (Limited) Way Back into Economics”, in History of Political Economy, Vol.36, No.4, 2004, pp.735-760.
[22] Conrad De Aenlle, “Making Money When the Market is Mistaken”, in The New York Times, 10 April, 2005, section 3, p.6.
[23] 这方面的研究综述见:Colin F. Camerer et al., “Neuroeconomics: Why Economics Needs Brains”, in Scandinavian Journal of Economics, Vol.106, No.3, 2004, pp.555-579; Aldo Rustichini, “Neuroeconomics: Present and Future”, in Games and Economics Behavior, Vol.52, No.2, 2005, pp.201-212.
[24] Thomas Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict, reprint edition, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
[25] Seymour Hersh, The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House, New York: Summit Books, 1983.
[26] Jack Hirshleifer, “The Affections and the Passions: Theirs Economics Logics”, in Rationality and Society, Vol.5, No.2, 1993, pp.185-202.
[27] Jack Hirshleifer, “The Affections and the Passions: Theirs Economics Logics”, p.186.
[28] Robert Frank, Passions within Reason: the Strategic Role of the Emotions, New York: Norton, 1988, p.ⅹ.
[29] Robert Frank, “The Strategic Role of the Emotions: Reconciling Over- and Undersocialized Accounts of Behavior”, in Rationality and Society, Vol.5, No.2, 1993, p.181.
[30] Ronald de Sousa, The Rationality of Emotion, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987, p.15.
[31] Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, New York: Putnam, 1994, p.ⅷ.
[32] Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, p.45.
[33] Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, pp.193-194.
[34] 转引自:Lynn Smithe-Lovin, “Can Emotionality and Rationality be Reconciled?”, in Rationality and Society, Vol.5, No.2, 1993, p. 291.
[35] Theodore Kemper, “Reason in Emotions or Emotions in Reason”, in Rationality and Society, Vol.5, No.2, 1993, p. 277.
[36] Theodore Kemper, “Reason in Emotions or Emotions in Reason”, p.276.
[37] Randall Collins, “Emotional Energy as the Common Denominator of Rational Action”, in Rationality and Society, Vol.5, No.2, 1993, pp.203-230.
[38] 巴克(Buck)试图解决罗伯特·扎乔克和里查德·拉扎勒斯(Richard Lazarus)之间关于感情和认知何者为先的问题。Ross Buck, “William James, the Nature of Knowledge, and Current Issues in Emotion, Cognition, and Communication”, in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol.16, No.4, 1990, pp.612-615.关于感情第一并影响认知及其他变量,请参阅:Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain.进一步了解进化心理学,请参阅:Jennifer Sterling-Folker, “Lamarckian with a Vengeance: Human Nature and American International Relations Theory”, in Journal of International Relations and Development, Vol.9, No.3, 2006, pp.227-246; Stephen Rosen, War and Human Nature.
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[43] Rose Mcdermott, “The Feeling of Rationality: The Meaning of Neuroscientific Advances for Political Science”.
[44] Stephen Rosen, War and Human Nature.
[45] Neta Crawford, “The Passion of World Politics: Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships”.
[46] 文献综述与评估,请参阅:Jonathan Mercer, “Prospect Theory and Political Science”, in Annual Review of Political Review, Vol.8, 2005, pp.1-21.
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[64] Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics”.
[65] Meghana Bhatt and Colin Camerer, “Self-Referential Thinking and Equilibrium as States of Mind in Games: fMRI Evidence”, in Games and Economic Behavior, Vol.52, No.2, 2005, pp.424-459.
[66] Jon Elster, Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences; Helena Flam, “Emotional ‘Man’: The Emotional ‘Man’ and the Problem of Collective Action”, in International Sociology, Vol.5, No.1, 1990, pp.39-56.
[67] Robert Frank, “The Strategic Role of the Emotions: Reconciling Over- and Undersocialized Accounts of Behavior”, p.168.
[68] Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics”.
[69] Thomas Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict, p. 43; Friedrich Kratochwil, Rules, Norms, and Decisions: On the Conditions of Practical and Legal Reasoning in International Relations and Domestic Affairs, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
[70] Rodney Hall, “Human Nature as Behaviour and Action in Economics and International Relations Theory”.