还有一些学者对均势理论的核心概念做了扩展,他们认为可以把制衡区分为“强制衡(hard balancing)”和“软制衡(soft balancing)”两种手段。强制衡主要体现为军事手段,传统上的内部加强军备和外部缔结联盟都可归入其中;软制衡则主要涉及政策上的协调、非正式的安全协议和合作、特定的联合军事演习以及有限加强军备等手段。持这种观点的学者指出,冷战结束以后,大国仍然对美国进行着制衡,只是制衡的方式和手段发生了变化,传统上的强制衡被现在的软制衡所取代,比如欧洲国家加强共同防务的努力、诸大国在联合国对美国单边行动的DIZHI等都是制衡的表现。[14]从“软制衡”的观点来看,均势理论与国际政治现实的相关性和解释力得到了维护,然而,我们认为这种观点扩大了核心概念的内涵,这是一种为挽救理论而做出的特设性假说(ad hoc hypothesis),将会导致理论上的退化。[15]而且,所谓的“软制衡”主要是大国在言辞和策略上的行为,它不会改变体系中权力的分布,也并没有导致体系向均势的方向发展。
随着体系中的权力集中程度增大,这种制衡的实力门槛显著提升的现象在单极体系下更加明显。威廉·沃尔福思(William C. Wohlforth)就指出,当前其他的大国尽管对美国进行制衡的动机很强烈,但制衡手段并不是十分有效的,因为“在任何体系中,如果权力过分集中在最强大国家的手中,要对其进行制衡,就要付出极其高昂的代价,这样就会形成一个门槛(threshold),令其他国家望而却步”。[31]沃尔兹也说:“一个强国与其他国家之间的实力差距越大,拉近距离所需的时间就越长。”[32]
不容忽视的是,美国的霸权护持战略对大国制衡行为的影响是双重的:一方面,美国的强势会降低其他大国与其直接冲突和挑战的可能;另一方面,正是美国彰显的霸权企图促使其他大国具有强烈的制衡意愿和需要。因为如果任由美国为所欲为,对其他大国的利益都会构成严重的损害。霸权护持的第二重效应在冷战后的国际政治中也有所体现,其中,以2003年伊拉克战争前后大国之间的角力最为显著,美国的单边主义行为引起了德国、俄罗斯、FaGuo和中国等主要大国的强烈反对,这种大国集体DIZHI美国的现象(其中包括了美国的传统盟国),在冷战后的国际政治中并不多见,迫使美国最终只能组织一个临时的“自愿联合(coalition of willingness)”来发动战争。
[1] 近年来出版了3本有关这一争论的论文集,分别是:John A. Vasquez and Colin Elman, eds., Realism and the Balance of Power: A New Debate, Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002; John Ikenberry, ed., America Unrivaled: The Future of the Balance of Power, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002; T. V. Paul, James Wirtz and Michel Fortmann, eds., Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st Century, California: Stanford University Press, 2004。2005年的一期《国际安全》杂志也专门组稿进行讨论,参见International Security, Vol. 30, No. 1, Summer 2005。
[2] 沃尔兹讨论了内部制衡和外部制衡,参见Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979, p. 118。
[3] 正如马克·布劳利所说,“外部制衡与联盟相关联,而内部制衡与军备联系在一起”。Mark R. Brawley, “The Political Economy of Balance of Power Theory,” in T. V. Paul, et al., eds., Balance of Power, p. 81。
[4] 著名联盟理论家格伦·斯奈德区分了正式的联盟(formal alliances)和默认的联合(tacit alignments),有助于理解中俄之间的关系。参见Glenn Snyder, Alliance Politics, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997, p. 6。
[6] 对其他大国如何应对美国霸权的论述参见G. John Ikenberry, “Strategic Reactions to American Preeminence: Great Power Politics in the Age of Unipolarity,” The National Intelligence Council Report, July 28, 2003,。
[8] 这几种观点在《美国无敌》一书的第三部分“单极的制度与意识形态”中有集中体现,参见John Ikenberry, ed., America Unrivaled, Part III。
[9] Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987, pp. 21-26.
[10] Stephen M. Walt, “Keeping the World ‘Off Balance’: Self Restraint and U.S. Foreign Policy,” in John Ikenberry, ed., America Unrivaled, pp. 121-154.
[11] Jack S. Levy, “What Do Great Powers Balance Against and When?” in T. V. Paul, et al., eds., Balance of Power, p.35; Christopher Layne, “The War on Terrorism and the Balance of Power: The Paradoxes of American Hegemony,” in T. V. Paul, et al., eds., Balance of Power, p. 115.
[12] Jack S. Levy, “What Do Great Powers Balance against and When?” pp. 29-51; Jack S. Levy and William R. Thompson, “Hegemonic Threats and Great-Power Balancing in Europe, 1495-1999,” Security Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, Autumn 2004/2005, pp. 1-33.
[13] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics,” in Robert O. Keohane, ed., Neorealism and Its Critics, New York: Columbia University Press, 1986, p. 341.
[14] 对强制衡和软制衡的区分以及从软制衡的角度对国际政治现实的分析,可参见T. V. Paul, “Introduction: The Enduring Axioms of Balance of Power Theory and Their Contemporary Relevance,” in T. V. Paul, et al., eds., Balance of Power, pp. 1-25; Josef Joffe, “Gulliver Unbound: Can America Rule the World?” Twentieth Annual John Boynthon Lecture, Centre of Independent Studies, August 5, 2003; Judith Kelley, “Strategic Non-cooperation as Soft Balancing: Why Iraq Was not just about Iraq,” International Politics, Vol. 42, No. 2, June 2005, pp. 153-173。对软制衡观点的批评可参见Stephen G. Brooks and William C. Wohlforth, “Hard Times for Soft Balancing,” International Security, Vol. 30, No. 1, Summer 2005, pp. 72-108; Keir A. Lieber and Gerard Alexander, “Waiting for Balancing: Why the World Is Not Pushing Back,” International Security, Vol. 30, No. 1, Summer 2005, pp. 109-139。
[16] Kenneth N. Waltz, “International Politics Is Not Foreign Policy,” Security Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1, (Autumn 1996), pp. 54-57; Kenneth N. Waltz, “Evaluating Theories,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 91, No. 4, December 1997, p. 914.
[17] Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 119.
[18] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics,” p. 334.
[19] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Structural Realism after the Cold War,” International Security, Vol. 25, No. 1, Summer 2000, p. 30.
[20] 近来,新古典现实主义学者兰德尔·斯维勒将这种现象概括为“制衡不足(underbalancing)”,相关的历史案例参见Randall L. Schweller, Unanswered Threats: Political Constraints on the Balance of Power, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006, pp. 1-3。
[22] Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, pp. 163-170.
[23] 李义虎:《均势演变与核时代》,杭州:浙江人民出版社,1989年版,第40~52页。
[24] Kenneth N. Waltz, The Origins of Alliances, pp. 30-31; Mark R. Brawley, “The Political Economy of Balance of Power Theory,” in T. V. Paul, et al., eds., Balance of Power, pp. 82-83.
[25] Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p. 127.
[26] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Reflections on Theory of International Politics,” pp. 330-333. 转引自宋伟:《结构现实主义是个体主义吗?》,载《国际政治科学》,2005年第3期,第130页。
[29] 这一统计数据的得出主要依据了Alliance Treaty Obligations and Provisions (ATOP)数据库,参见Brett Ashley Leeds, Jeffrey M. Ritter, Sara McLaughlin Mitchell and Andrew G. Long, “Alliance Treaty Obligations and Provisions, 1815-1944,” International Interactions, Vol. 28, No. 3, January 2002, pp. 237-260。该数据库的网址为:http://atop.rice.edu/
[34] 这一评述可参见[美]迈克尔·马斯坦多诺:《学术与治术中的经济与安全》,载[美]彼得·卡赞斯坦等编,秦亚青等译:《世界政治中的探索与争鸣》,上海:上海人民出版社,2006年版,第220页;Ethan B. Kapstein and Michael Mastanduno, eds., Unipolar Politics: Realism and State Strategies after the Cold War, New York:Columbia University Press, 1999。
[35] 对这些行为的讨论参见John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001), Chapter 5; Schweller, Unanswered Threats, Chapter 1.
[36] Christopher Layne, “The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers Will Rise,” International Security, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Spring 1993), p. 9; Karen Ruth Adams, “New Great Powers: Who Will They Be, and How Will They Rise?” Paper prepared for presentation at The 2005 Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Honolulu, Hawaii, March 2-5, 2005.