当我们把事物概念化(想像或是用比喻)时,无论我们是用一个容器包含一个容器还是一个整体包含另一个整体来比喻,我们是把诸多概念中的某种特殊关系作为造就事物的一种工具。我们在造就事物的时候,或是把它分为部分,或是把部分聚合在一起,或是从一种事物转到另一种事物。在整个过程中,我们通过使用前文所描述的认知方法在事物中建立了一种顺序。但是要理解我们所造就的这种顺序并不容易,整体只是我们利用比喻而进行的一种抽象概括而已。 所以,概念就如同容器一样可以分为层次。层次一旦形成,就不会再发生大的变化。而且,一般的事物不会在层次之间运动,除非它们有位于两层之间及或上或下的特点。只有当层次间的事物出现大的变动时,层次之间的关系才会发生变化。这样一个层次化的世界为所有的事物提供了一个位置。哲学家们把这种关系称为“存在链(chain of being)”,各个层次之间是以这个链条连在一起,很显然把这些层次分开的东西也是把它们连在一起的东西。 我们可以把这种类化以更现代和熟悉的方式表示出来。在层次内部是充分原因在起作用,而在层次之间,我们通常不讨论原因。因此,我们可以说,原子之间可以相互影响,但是一般不会影响到包含它们的分子。或者说社会变化不会影响到造就社会的人的认知能力。
2. Aristotle, On the Soul III vii (432a1-2); in Johnathan,Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle (The Revised Oxford Translation), Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 686.
3. Nicholas G. Onuf,“Constructivism: A User’s Manual,” in Nicholas G. Onuf, Paul Kowert, eds., International Relations in a Constructed World, New York: M.E. Sharp, 1998.
4. Nicholas G.Onuf, World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in the Social Theory and International Relations, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989.
5. 参见Nicholas G.Onuf, World of Our Making, Chapter 1.
6. Aristotle, Politics I ii (1253a10); in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, 1984, p.1988.
8. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, VI ii (1139a33), Terence Irwin, ed., 2nd ed. Trans., Indianapolis: Hackett, 1999, p.150.
9. Aristotle, Politics I ii (1253a7-18), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p.1988.
10. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archeology of the Human Sciences, trans. A.M. Sheridan Smith, New York: Pantheon Books, 1971, pp. 106-117.
11. Aristotle, Categories I iv (1b25-2a4), TopicsI ix (103b20-23), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p.172.
12. Aristotle, Metaphysics VII (1028b36-37), (1029a8-9), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, pp.1624-1625.
13. Aristotle, Metaphysics V iv (1015a14-15), Physics II i (193a28-29), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p. 1603, p.330.
14. Aristotle, Metaphysics V ii (1013b20-24), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p. 1600.关于整体 和部分的关系, 参见Aristotle, Metaphysics V xxv-xxvi (1023b12-36), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, pp. 1616-1617; Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought, pp. 209-212。
15. Aristotle, Metaphysics VII vii (1032a26-32), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p. 1630.
16. 参见亚里士多德关于充分原因的解释,Aristotle, Metaphysics V xii (1019a15) , in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p. 1609。
17. Aristotle, Categories I iii (1b10-11), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p.4.
18. George and Mark, Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to West Thought, New York: Basic Books, 1999, pp.19-20.
19. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, New York: Prometheus Books, 1996, p.81; 1787, p. 106; 1965, p. 114.
20. Aristotle, De Interpretatione i-iii (16a1-b26 ) in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, pp.25-26.
21. Aristotle, De Interpretatione ix (18a38-b1), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p.29.
22. Aristotle, De Interpretatione Vii (17b17-26), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p.27.
23. Aristotle, Prior Analytics, in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, pp.39-113.
24. Aristotle, Politics I ii (1253a10-17) , in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, p.1988.
25. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, II ii (1104b4-23), Terence Irwin, ed., 2nd ed. Trans., pp.37-38.
26. Onuf, “Everyday Ethics in International Relations,”Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol.27, No.3,1998, pp.669-693.
28. 关于亚里士多德针对人类和其他动物都有的能力和人类所特有的能力,详见Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, II ii (103a27-8),Terence Irwin, ed., 2nd ed. Trans., p. 36 ; Aristotle, On the Soul III (424b21-435b26), in Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle, pp.675-692。
29. Onuf, World of Our Making, pp. 78-94; Constructivism: A User’s Manual,” in Onuf, Paul Kowert, eds., International Relations in a Constructed World, New York: M.E. Sharp, 1998, pp. 64-69.
30. Steven Pinker, The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature, New York: Penguin Books, 2002.