在约翰·拉格看来,国际秩序具有3个集中的特点。第一个是政治权威国际化的结构( structure of internationalization of political authority) 。不管政治权威采取何种制度形式,它都是追求合理的社会目标的各种力量的结合。因此,如果将国际化的权威仅仅看做实力的产物,必然忽略掉社会意志所发挥的作用。他断言,实力能决定国际秩序的形式,却不能预期其内容。例如,荷兰是17世纪的霸权国,但它的对外政策却是重商主义的。[13] 另外一个例子是英国治下的霸权秩序和美国治下的霸权秩序的差异。前者是放任自流的自由主义( laissez - faire liberalism) ,后者则不然。因此,拉格指出,如果想要如实地讨论国际秩序的内容以及为这种秩序服务的机制,就必须探究实力和合理的社会目标是如何融合在一起将政治权威投射到国际体系之中的。[14]具体到二战后的国际秩序,拉格采用了“内嵌的自由主义”这样一个概念。
随着1929年经济大危机的到来,国家、社会和市场的关系发生了“大转变( great transformation) ”,各国政府纷纷干预社会经济甚至采取“以邻为壑”的政策以稳定价格和就业,保护本国经济免受外部混乱的冲击,原有的自由经济秩序***为若干个相互竞争的货币和贸易集团。结果,在两次世界大战期间,各国的国际货币和贸易政策越来越屈从于国内的社会和经济目标。这与以前恰好相反,从一个极端走向了另一个极端。英国也无力(再)提供维持自由国际经济秩序所需要的公共物品,例如充裕的商品市场和资本供给。从经济民族主义的浪潮开始,在经济自由化中遭受工资降低、失业等处境的弱势群体的长期不满爆发出来。种族主义、帝国主义、法西斯主义等激进的意识形态开始在各国政治生活中抬头,最终导致了第二次世界大战。
与国内层面不同,在全球层次上,没有一个中央政府来代表公共利益,而国际制度由于过于弱小不能完全弥补这一真空。因此,拉格在担任联合国助理秘书长期间,力主“全球契约”的概念,试图减轻国际体系在自由化过程中的两极分化程度。但是,与国内契约不同,全球契约着眼的不是国家,而是公民社会、企业和公共部门在形成共同社会责任( corporate social responsibility)方面的作用。[36] 这一思想已经被联合国秘书长安南采用并正式付诸实践。[37]
拉格指出,全球层面正在出现一些显著的制度性发展,其中包括全球公共领域( global public domain)的出现。在这个领域中,人们围绕全球规则的制定进行对话、论战和采取行动。它是一个跨越国家的空间,允许人们在其中直接(不通过国家)表达和追求人类利益。它的驱动力来源于公民社会不断扩展的角色和公民社会与全球企业的互动。[39] 这些公民社会组织包括诸如大赦国际、经济合作与发展组织(OECD)等,它们推动全球企业承担更多的社会责任。这也就是全球契约的核心内容。跨国企业从自由化的国际机制中得益,可是却不承担什么义务。从另一个角度来说,与国家相比,跨国企业的全球到达和行动能力更胜一筹。因此,在弥补因为全球化所造成的全球性失衡方面,它们可以发挥非常积极的作用。举例来说,这些企业的社会和环境表现的改善将直接使它们所雇的员工及其所在的社区受惠。[40] 因此,全球契约的核心是公民社会和跨国企业之间达成的一个妥协,或者说契约,它是经济发展和社会保护在全球层面得到协调的途径。
[2]Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict: The Third World against Global L iberalism, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985, pp. 60 - 65.
[3]Joseph S. Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, New York: Basic Books, 1991; Joseph S. Nye, The Paradox of American Power: Why the World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go It A lone, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002; Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics, New York: Public Affairs, 2004.
[4]持同样看法的另一位重要学者是约翰·艾肯伯瑞,他将二战后西方秩序定义为“结构自由主义”。Daniel Deudney and John G. Ikenberry, “Structural Liberalism: The Nature and Sources of Postwar Western Political Order, ”Browne Center for International Politics, May 1996, http: / /www.ciaonet.org/wps/ded01 /ded01. html。
[5]有意思的是,罗伯特·基欧汉等学者从相反的角度考察了国际化对国内政治的影响,并成功地将其理论化。Robert O. Keohane and Helen V. Milner, Internationalization and Domestic Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996。
[6]Salvatore Pitruzzello, “Trade Globalization, Economic Performance and Social Protection: 19 th - century British Laissez - Faire and Post – World War II U. S. Embedded Liberalism, ”http: / /www. econ. ku. dk / okokj/ conferencepapers/Pitruzzello - Trade%20Globalization. pdf.
[8]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”International Organization, Vol. 36, Issue 2, Sp ring 1982, pp. 379 - 415.
[9]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”p. 380. [10]Robert O. Keohane, “ International Institutions: Two App roaches, ”International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 32, No. 4, December 1988, p. 382.
[11]事实上,基欧汉在他的代表作《霸权之后》中谈到了国际制度的价值取向问题。当然,他的反思并不仅仅限于谁控制了国际组织的问题,也包含对自由化本身的价值取向判断。Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, chapter 11。
[12]Robert O. Keohane, “The Theory of Hegemonic Stability and Changes in International Economic Regimes, 1967 - 1977, ”in Ole Holsti, et al. , eds. , Change in the International System, Boulder, Col. : Westview Press, 1980.
[13]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”p. 382.
[14]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”p. 382.
[15]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”pp. 383 - 384.
[16]Robert Gilp in, Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.
[17]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”p. 393.
[18]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”pp. 388 -39
[19]Charles P. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929 - 1939, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973, esp. chap ter 1.
[20]Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981, pp. 369 - 375.
[21]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”p. 390.
[22]Robert Gilp in, The Political Economy of International Relations, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.
[23]John G. Ruggie, “Trade, Protectionism, and the Future of Welfare Capitalism, ”Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 48, No. 1, 1984, pp. 1 - 11.
[24]John G. Ruggie, “ International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order, ”p. 397.
[25]Quoted in David E. Sanger,“A Last World from the Last Liberal, ” International Herald Tribune, January 10, 1997, p. 3
[26]John G. Ruggie, “Globalization and the Embedded Liberalism Comp romise: The End of an Era?” http: / /www. mp i - fg - koeln. mpg. de / pu /workpap /wp97 - 1 /wp97 - 1. html.
[27]Adrian Wood, North - South Trade, Employm ent and Inequality: Changing Fortunes in a Skill - D riven World, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.
[28]转引自: John G. Ruggie, “Globalization and the Embedded Liberalism Comp romise: The End of an Era?”http: / /www. mp i - fg - koeln. mpg. de /pu /workpap /wp97 - 1 /wp97 - 1. html。
[29]J. Steven Landefeld, Obie G. Whichard, and Jeffrey H. Lowe, “Alternative Frameworks for U. S. International Transactions, ”Survey of Current Business, http: / /www. bea.gov/bea / articles/ internat/bpa /1993 / 1293 iid. pdf, December 1993, p. 50.
[30]Richard G. Harris, “Globalization, Trade, and Income, ”Canadian Journal of Econom ics, Vol. 26, No. 4, November 1993, pp. 755 - 776.
[31]John G. Ruggie, “Globalization and the Embedded Liberalism Compromise: The End of an Era?” http: / /www. mp i - fg - koeln. mpg. de / pu /workpap /wp97 - 1 /wp97 - 1. html.
[32]John G. Ruggie, “Globalization and the Embedded Liberalism Comp romise: The End of an Era?” http: / /www. mp i - fg - koeln. mpg. de / pu /workpap /wp97 - 1 /wp97 - 1. html.
[33]Philip G. Cerny, “Globalization and the Changing Logic of Collective Action, ”International O rganization, Vol. 49, No. 4, Autumn 1995,p. 619.
[34]John G. Ruggie, “Taking Embedded Liberalism Global: The Corporate Connection, ”in David Held andMathias Koenig - Archibugi, eds. , Taming Globalization: Frontiers of Governance, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003.
[35]John G. Ruggie, “Taking Embedded Liberalism Global: The Corporate Connection, ”2003.
[36]John G. Ruggie, “Taking Embedded Liberalism Global: The Corporate Connection, ”2003.
[37]http: / /www. unglobalcompact. org.
[38]P. J. Simmons and Chantal de Jonge Oudraat, eds. , Managing Global Issues, Washington, D. C. : Carnegie Endowment, 2001; John Braithwaite and Peter Drahos, Global Business Regulation, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
[39]Daniel Drache, ed., The Market or the Public Domain: Global Governance and the Asymmetry of Power, London: Routledge, 2001.
[40]John G. Ruggie, “Taking Embedded Liberalism Global: The Corporate Connection, ”2003.
[41]John G. Ruggie, “Globalization and the Embedded Liberalism Compromise: The End of an Era?”http: / /www. mp i - fg - koeln. mpg. de / pu /workpap /wp97 - 1 /wp97 - 1. html.