把战争发生的原因归咎于认知错误则以Van Evera《战争的起因》一书为代表。如前述,他极力强调结构是良性的,很少导致战争,但是国家却常常认知错误,造成许多不必要的战争。很多现代战争都是「幻觉的战争」(wars of illusions),国家自认会打胜,自认先发制人是有利的,自认相对权力在下降中,或是自认征服很容易,因而发动战争,殊不知事实并非如此。当这些错误认知不存在时,战争很少发生。28
攻守理論的兴起和冷战时期的核子吓阻有密切关系,几个该理論的主要提倡者-如George Quester, Robert Jervis, Jack Snyder, 和Charles Glaser-先前都钻研核子吓阻理論,他们所共同关心的议题就是如何把核子吓阻架构应用到传统武力上來。在核子战略中,攻击性和防卫性武器可作清楚的划分,也没有双重用途,例如洲际导弹只能用來攻击敌人領土,而不是用來拦截來袭飞弹。理性决策者应认識出相互吓阻的恐怖平衡架构,若轻举妄动则如同自殺行为,只有认知错误或误判情势才有可能危及和平,导致核子战争。由于冷战时期核子吓阻的稳定有效,争辩的焦点便转向北约和华沙公约组织的传统军力平衡。如果传统军力也可弄成像核子平衡一样稳定,安全竞争将可舒缓。33
第一次世界大战是守势现实主义者常用來解析攻守理論的个案。他们认为战前的欧洲弥漫一股「攻击崇拜」(the cult of the offensive),军方美化了进攻,采取攻击性的军事方略,而文人菁英和大众也认为攻击占有优势,是解决安全问题的最佳方法。德国的Schlieffen将军宣称「攻击是最佳的防御」,而FaGuo、英国、俄国也展示出類似的思考模式,认为攻势作战才是国家安全的保障。这种「攻击崇拜」才是造成大战爆发的主因。守势现实主义认为,实际上一次大战前防御占了优势,而这可从战事后來陷入胶着得到印证。不幸的是,当时的决策者认知错误,以为攻击占优势,战事将速战速决,而忽略了美国内战、俄土战争、波尔战争、和日俄战争的教训,没有察觉到那时防御性科技的力量已使守方占了优势。34 攻守平衡理論的主要論点都在一次大战中得到印证:当攻击(被认为)具有优势时,战争较易发生,以及决策者的认知扮演了关键角色。
1 Benjamin Frankel, "Restating the Realist Case: An Introduction," in Realism: Restatement and Renewal, ed. Frankel (London: Frank Cass, 1996). Van Evera的话出自 "Elements of the Realist Paradigm: What Are They?" typescript, 27 January 1992, p. 4. Gilpin 的话出自 Robert G. Gilpin, "No One Loves a Political Realist," Security Studies 5, no. 3 (Spring 1996): 6.
2 Jeffrey W. Taliaferro, "Security Seeking under Anarchy: Defensive Realism Revisited," International Security 25, no. 3 (Winter 2000/01): 131.
4 Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1984).; Stephen D. Krasner, ed., International Regimes (Ithaca, NY.: Cornell University Press, 1983).
5 Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1993).; Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones and Steven E. Miller, ed., Debating the Democratic Peace (Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press, 1996)..
6 Alexander Wendt, "Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics," International Organization 46, no. 2 (Spring 1992).
7 Gilpin, "No One Loves a Political Realist." Gilpin认为,自由主义者之所以那么厌惡现实主义是因为自由主义思想本身的特征之故。自由主义坚信正确的观念导致正确的行为,错误的观念导致错误行为,因此必须摒除后者,人類才会进步。自由主义者通常比较无法容忍不同的意見,如Michael Doyle指出,自由主义者对非自由主义者相当具有侵略性,故Gilpin有「自由主义的不宽容」(liberal intolerance)之语。Ibid., p. 3.
8 守势现实主义的主要著作有Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, M.A.: Addison-Wesley, 1978).; Barry R. Posen, The Sources of Military Doctrine: France, Britain, and Germany between the World Wars (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984); Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987); Joseph Grieco, "Anarchy and the Limits of Cooperation: A ealist Critique of the Newest Liberal Institutionalism, " International Organization, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Summer 1988), pp. 485-507; Jack L. Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); Charles L. Glaser, "Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-Help," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 50-90; Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War: Power and the Roots of Conflict, Cornell Studies in Security Affairs (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999).; Taliaferro, "Security Seeking under Anarchy: Defensive Realism Revisited."
9 Charles Glaser, "Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-Help," International Security 19, no. 3 (Winter 1994/95).英国的《经济学人》杂志也有一篇书评文章标题为「不,现实主义者也可以是樂观主义者」。"No, Realists Can be Optimists too," Economist, Oct. 6, 2001. 许多国际关系的理論争辩系于研究者对未來是否樂观,K. J. Holsti认为「我们学科基本輪廓的许多理論論述,实际上是关于樂观主义与悲观主义的争辩,亦即我们对所活世界的一般展望」。K. J. Holsti, "The Horsemen of the Apocalypse: At the Gates, Detoured, or Retreating?," International Studies Quarterly 30, no. 4 (Dec. 1986): 356.
10 攻势现实主义的代表作为John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001). 关于攻势与守势现实主义名称的出现,一般是追溯到Snyder,但他对攻势现实主义原使用「侵略性现实主义」(aggressive realism)一辞。Jack L. Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), 11-12. 其它学者也有自创的称呼,如Kaufmann称攻势现实主义为「悲观的结构现实主义」(optimistic structural realism),守势现实主义为「樂观的结构现实主义」(optimistic structural realism);Brooks称攻势现实主义为「新现实主义」,守势现实主义为「后古典现实主义」(postclassical realism);Glaser称守势现实主义为「条件式的现实主义」(contingent realism)。但学界最常用的仍是守势现实主义与攻势现实主义这兩个名称。Stephen G. Brooks, "Dueling Realisms," International Organization 51, no. 3 (Summer 1997), Glaser, "Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-Help.", Robert G. Kaufmann, "A Two-Level Interaction: Structure, Stable Liberal Democracy, and U.S. Grand Strategy," Security Studies 3, no. 4 (Summer 1994)
11 Sean M. and Steven E. Miller Lynn-Jones, "Preface," in The Perils of Anarchy: Contemporary Realism and International Security, ed. Michael E. Brown, Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller (Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press, 1995).; Frankel, "Restating the Realist Case: An Introduction."
12 国家的主要角色是指近代而言,现实主义只需有「冲突团体」的存在即可具有解释力,參見Gilpin, "No One Loves a Political Realist." 除了国家之外,现实主义也可用來解释帮派行为,如Elijah Anderson, The Code of the Streets (Atlantic Monthly, May 1994 [cited October 9 2002]); available from http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/race/streets.htm
13 攻势现实主义并不作此假定,而认为国际上的安全很稀少。「安全充足」(security plentiful)一辞來自Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY.: Cornell University Press, 1987), 35.
14 Waltz, Theory of International Politics, 126.
15 Ibid., 127.
16 Kenneth N. Waltz, "The Origins of War in Neorealist Theory," in The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars, ed. Robert I. Rotberg, and Theodore K. Rabb (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 40.
17 Randall L. Schweller, "Neorealism’s Status-Quo Bias: What Security Dilemma?," Security Studies 5, no. 3 (Spring 1996).
18 Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition, 7. 值得注意的是Snyder主要用国内政治來解释侵略行为。
19 Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 21, 410, fn. 46.
20 关于安全困境的概念可追溯到G. Lowes Dickinson, The European Anarchy (New York: Macmillan, 1916). Dickinson虽然未使用安全困境一辞,但其邏辑已蕴含书中:「强权所采取的每一步骤都被另一国视为威胁,进而采取類似步骤反制,而这又导致另一响应」(p. 88)。亦參見John H. Herz, "Idealist Internationalism and the Security Dilemma," World Politics 2, no. 2 (January 1950): 157-80.
21 Robert Jervis, "Cooperation under the Security Dilemma," World Politics 30, no. 2 (1978).
22 Ibid.: 199
23 Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 31. 意图的问题也是建构主义与现实主义争辩的焦点,參見Dale C. Copeland, "The Constructivist Challenge to Structural Realism: A Review Essay," International Security 25, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 187-212.
24 Walt, The Origins of Alliances. 在Walt的「威胁平衡」論中,国家的权力是构成威胁的要素之一,其它尚有地理邻近、攻击能力、和侵略意图, pp. 21-26。
25 Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War: Power and the Roots of Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999), 6-9. 引自p.6。
26 Waltz, Theory of International Politics, 117-28
27 Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition. 关于对此論点的阐述与批判,參見Fareed Zakaria, "Realism and Domestic Politics: A Review Essay," International Security 17, no. 1 (Summer 1992).
28 Van Evera, Causes of War: Power and the Roots of Conflict, 255.
29 攻守理論的主要著作包括 George H. Quester, Offense and Defense in the International System (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1977).; Jervis, "Cooperation under the Security Dilemma."; Sean M. Lynn-Jones, "Offense-Defense Theory and Its Critics," Security Studies 4, no. 4 (1995).; Stephen Van Evera, "Offense, Defense, and the Causes of War," International Security 22, no. 4 (Spring 1998).; Charles L. Glaser and Chaim Kaufmann, "What Is the Offense-Defense Balance and Can We Measure It?," International Security 22, no. 4 (Spring 1998).
30 Van Evera, Causes of War: Power and the Roots of Conflict, 117.
31 Ibid., 160-66.
32 Ibid., 191.
33 Richard K. Betts, "Must War Find a Way?: A Review Essay," International Security 24, no. 2 (Fall 1999): 176-77
34 Jack Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984), Stephen Van Evera, "The Cult of the Offensive and the Origins of the First World War," International Security 9, no. 1 (Summer 1984).
35 Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy.
36 Glaser, "Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-Help."
37 Taliaferro, "Security Seeking under Anarchy: Defensive Realism Revisited," 132.
38 如Wendt, "Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics."
39 Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press, 1965).
40 亦參見Fareed Zakaria, "Realism and Domestic Politics," International Security 17, no. 1 (Summer 1992): 195.
41 Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 39.
42 关于征服划不划算,參見Peter Liberman, Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996).
43 Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 211.
44 Kier A. Lieber, "Grasping the Technological Peace: The Offense-Defense Balance and International Security," International Security 25, no. 1 (Summer 2000).
45 Jervis, "Cooperation under the Security Dilemma," 201-02.
46 Van Evera, Causes of War: Power and the Roots of Conflict, 161.
47 Glaser and Kaufmann, "What Is the Offense-Defense Balance and Can We Measure It?."
48 Betts, "Must War Find a Way?: A Review Essay," 186-87.
49 关于「证明为假」在社会科学的应用,參見Imre Lakatos, "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes," in Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, ed. Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970).
50 Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, "Is Anybody Still a Realist?," International Security 24, no. 2 (Fall 1999): 35.
51 Gilpin, "No One Loves a Political Realist." Gilpin认为这种批评是「最不公平和荒谬的」(p.4)。随着前苏聯档案的解禁,研究发现现实主义虽无法预测但可用來解释冷战的结束,戈巴契夫的新思维是用來挽救苏聯国力日益下降的方式。參見Stephen G. Brooks, and William C. Wohlforth, "Power, Globalization, and the End of the Cold War," International Security 25, no. 3 (Winter 2000/01).
52 Legro and Moravcsik, "Is Anybody Still a Realist?."
53 Peter D. Feaver, et al., "Correspondence: Brother, Can You Spare a Paradigm? (or Was Anybody Ever a Realist?)," International Security 25, no. 1 (Summer 2000).