按照马斯洛(Abraham H. Maslow)心理学的动机/需要层次理论,人类的行为动机由低到高分为五个层次:生理的需要、安全的需要、社交/归属与爱的需要、尊重的需要和自我实现的需要。[ 1]人都潜藏这五种不同层次的需要,安全的需要处于次底层,在人的生理需要得到适当的满之后,安全的需要便会充分显现。从心理层面而言,安全的需要包括了希望稳定、依赖性、免受恐吓、焦虑和混乱的折磨及对于秩序的需求等。[ 2]安全(security)一词按照《大韦氏三版》(Webster’s Third)的解释,首先就是安全的性质与状态的定义,其中第一条指“免于危险的自由”,第二条是指“免于忧虑”,第三条指“免于恐惧、焦虑或忧虑的自由”,第四条则是指“免于不确定性与困惑的自由”。[3] 而根据《蓝登社大辞典》(RandomHouse)的解释,安全除了指“免于危险、风险、焦虑和疑惑”之外,还指“免于匮乏/渴望的自由(freedom from want)”。[4] 这些关于“安全”定义的表述带有两层含义。
这本身又涉及国际关系研究的层次分析(level of analysis)。如果把一个民族国家内的人群作为施动者,而把国家作为结构(structure),人们发现群体心理及其变化对一国的对外政策具有极重要的影响。这一直觉促使许多学者把社会心理分析运用到国际政治的现实研究之中,尤其是关于人类冲突的微观理论分析。
詹姆斯·多尔蒂(James E. Dougherty)和小罗伯特·普法尔茨格拉夫(Robert L. Pfaltzgraff,Jr.)认为:“我们不应过于贬低心理因素对战争的影响。领导人和普通平民对于世界、外国人以及其他民族和文化的态度——友好、敌视或者漠视都是通过一个复杂的、贯穿一生的心理发展过程而形成的。尤其在民主国家里,精神和社会领袖在做出事关战争与和平的决策时,无法忽视公众的情感,比如孤立主义、和平主义、好战的仇视、人道主义同情、愤怒,或者为维护国家荣誉、安全或经济利益而提出的民族沙文主义”。[11]揭示安全问题与人类群体心理的相关性无疑使社会心理分析为国际安全研究开辟了新的视野。
3. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged, Massachusetts: G.& C. Merriam Company, pp.2053-2054.
4. Random House Dictionary of the English Language, the Unabridged Edition, Random House Inc., 1983, p.1290。
5. 中国文化研究所:《中文大辞典》第九卷,1968 年版,第3855 页。
6. Harold & Margaret Sprout, An Ecological Paradigm for the Study of International Politics, Monograph No.30, Center for International Studies, Princeton, N.J.,1968, p.42; James E. Dougherty and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, Beijing :Peking University Press, 2004, pp.165-166.
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7. John Dollard, Leonard W. Doob, Neal E. Miller, et al., Frustration and Aggression, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939, pp.39-47; James E. Dougherty and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, pp.238-239.
8. John Dollard,et al., Frustration and Aggression, pp.55-76。
9. James E. Dougherty and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, p.240.
10. James E. Dougherty and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, pp.240-241.
11. James E. Dougherty and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, p.243.
17. Charles Osgood, “Cognitive Dynamics in the Conduct of Human Affairs,” Public Opinion Quarterly, No.24, Summer 1960, p.357.
18. 罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,第271 页。
19. Jeffrey M. Jones and Joseph Carroll, “Impact of Terrorism on the Daily Lives of Americans,” The Gallup Poll, October 31, 2001, http://poll.gallup.com/content/default.aspx?ci=9988 .
20. Lydia Saad, “Americans Want Tighter Airport Security at Any Cost,” The Gallup Poll, October 31, 2001, http://poll.gallup.com/content/default.aspx?ci=5026&pg=1.
21. Frank Newport, “Americans Remain Strongly in Favor of Military Retaliation,” The Gallup Poll, September 27, 2001, http://poll.gallup.com/content/default.aspx?ci=4933&pg=1.
22. Frank Newport, “Americans Remain Strongly in Favor of Military Retaliation,” The Gallup Poll, September 27, 2001, http://poll.gallup.com/content/default.aspx?ci=4933&pg=1.
24. Bill Vann, “Washington Employs Fear and Panic as Instruments of War,” World Socialist, The International Committee of the Fourth International, February 14, 2003.
25. 参见本文表2,转引自Jeffrey M. Jones and Joseph Carroll, “Impact of Terrorism on the Daily Lives of Americans,” The Gallup Poll, October 31, 2001, http://poll.gallup.com/content/default.aspx?ci=9988 。
26. President Bush Addresses the Nation, The Oval Office of the White House, The White House, March 19, 2003, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030319-17.html ;[美]查默斯·约翰逊著,任晓、张耀、薛晨译:《帝国的悲哀:黩武主义、保密与共和国的终结》,上海:上海世纪出版集团,2005 年版,第268-270 页。
28. The Woodrow Wilson Center, President Discusses Iraqi Elections, Victory in the War on Terror, December 14, 2005, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/12/20051214-1.html .
29. [美]查默斯·约翰逊著:《帝国的悲哀:黩武主义、保密与共和国的终结》,第263 页。
30. Scott Ritter, “Is Iraq a True Threat to the U.S.?” Boston Globe, July 20, 2002.
31. Brian S. Wise, “Mr. Irrelevant, Former Fox News Consultant Scott Ritter Is Nothing More than Brockian,” Intellectual Conservative, September 9, 2002, http://www.intellectualconservative.com/article1052.html .
34. “Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Assessment of the British Government,” The Guardian, September 24, 2002;Peter Fray, “Spy Chief Regrets ‘45 Minute’ Iraq Weapons Claim,” The Age, September 17, 2003; also see Peter Fray, “Blair Retracts His ‘45 Minutes’ WMD Claim,” The Age, October 14, 2004.
35. Donald Campbell, “Systematic Error on the Part of Human Links in Communication Systems,” Information and Control, No.1, 1958, p.363, 转引自罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,第332 页。
36. 鲍勃·伍德沃德:《布什的战争》,第49、61 页。
37. Albert Hastorf and Hadley Cantril, “They Saw a Game,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, No.49, 1954, pp.129-134, 转引自罗伯特·杰维斯:《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,第378 页。
38. James Harding, Richard Wolffe and James Blitz, “U.S. Will Rebuild Iraq As Democracy, Says Rice,”The Financial Times, September 22, 2002.
39. Dana Milbank, “Conquered Iraq to be a Model of Democracy: Bush, ” The Sydney Morning Herald, February 22, 2003.
40. “President Discusses the Future of Iraq,” Washington Hilton Hotel, The White House, February 26, 2003, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030226-11.html .
41. United States Chamber of Commerce, Remarks by the President at the 20th anniversary of the national endowment for democracy, The White House, November 6, 2003, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/11/20031106-3.html .
42. Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957, pp.13-31.
43. “State of the Union Addressed by the President,” United States Capitol, The White House, January 31, 2006, http://www.whitehouse.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/index.html .
44. The Pentagon,Quadrennial Defense Review Report, February 2006, http://www.defenselink.mil/qdr/report/Report20060203.pdf .
45. “State of the Union Addressed by the President,”United States Capitol, The White House, January 31, 2006, http://www.whitehouse.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/index.htm l; “President Discusses Global War on Terror at Kansas State University, ” Kansas State University, The White House, January 23, 2006, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/01/20060123-4.html .
46. “President Bush Discusses Progress in the War on Terror,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory, The White House, July 12, 2004, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/07/20040712-5.html ; “Bush: War in Iraq Worth High Price to U.S.,” MSNBC, June 12, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13268742/#storyContinued .