以汉斯·摩根索(Hans J. Morgenthau)为代表的现实主义学者认为,个体及个体的知觉、动机因素尽管很重要,但由于这些因素的“不可观测”性,因而应从他们的分析架构中筛漏出去[4]。此外,在肯尼思·华尔兹(Kenneth Waltz)所提出的关于战争起源的三意象理论中,个体层次的人性因素并不是他重点分析所在[5]。在他随后建立的体系层次上的结构现实主义理论框架中,变量关系为国际体系的结构影响国家行为,以及国家在国际结构中所处的位置或相对力量对国家行为或国家互动起决定性的作用。同样,在其他的体系理论家那里,个体及知觉、个性等因素也没有受到重视。这些体系理论家包括默顿·卡普兰(M. A. Kaplan)、罗伯特·基欧汉(Robert O. Keohane)等。总之,现实主义等其他体系国际关系理论并没有给予个体及个体认知心理足够的学术研究重视。
国际政治认知心理学的一个核心假定为:个体是外交决策和国家行为的重要行为者,人是理性行为体,而人的理性受认知能力和环境影响又是有限的。个体在国际关系中的地位和作用,这是层次分析法(levels of analysis)的问题。新现实主义为代表的体系理论,强调体系结构的作用,认为个体及国家只是“消极”的政策执行者,并不是“积极”施动者。这种体系结构决定或制约论,对于相同国际结构压力下不同国家的不同政策与战略反映现象,并不能提供很好的解释。由此观之,个体并非“弹子球(billiard ball)”。因为不同的人的认知能力、知觉过程、个性特征、动机与情感因素等差异很大,在“假定相关其他变量不变(ceteris paribus)”的情况下,个体认知变量与政策行为之间具有相关关系。当然,个体层次因素的作用必须与其他层次的变量综合考虑,才能有效地辨析其所起的作用。在不同的政策环境中,个体认知因素的作用并不相同。如官僚体系与国内政治等环境制约压力很大的情况下,个体的认知变量所起的作用相应减小;反之,个体的知觉、信念体系、个性等发挥的作用则增大。如此,我们可以得知:个体在国际政治中具有重要的地位,但探讨个体层次的生理、认知心理因素的作用必须建立在对其他变量做出相关假设的基础上。
认知图研究的应用,建立在系列的理论进展的基础之上,如决策理论、因果推理理论、心理逻辑学以及图表理论等。认知图通过对决策者对于某一具体问题的特定信仰的相互关系的直观描述,具有简明清晰的优势,这使得认知图分析诞生后运用较多。如杰弗里·哈特(Jeffrey A. Hart)通过对拉美决策者认知图的分析,认为认知图在简约、通用性、描述力、解释力以及规范含义的丰富性等五个标准上得分很高[27]。但之后理论发展很少,艾克斯罗德也转向合作研究。
第三,意象。关于意象理论的研究,主要集中于国际冲突与战争研究领域。一般而言,意象包括自我意象(self-image)及他者意象(other-image)以及多主体意象,实质为个体对自我、他者以及他者对自我知觉的知觉过程。国际关系研究中,关于意象的研究包括“敌人意象(enemy image)”以及“镜像(the mirror image)”等。奥利·霍尔斯蒂(Ole R. Holsti)通过研究美国前国务卿杜勒斯(John Foster Dulles)对苏联的意象,说明民族意象存在固化(stereotype)现象,即杜勒斯对其所形成的“苏联邪恶”意象很难改变,而且自我证实,拒绝一些新的信息等。[28]
而新近研究的焦点逐渐转为:理性主义是否应从心理学研究中脱离出去(be free of psychology)?如果确认心理学只解释错误行为的话,那么将导致三种结果,即理性解释与心理学无关,心理学的解释需要一种理性的基线(baseline),以及心理学并不能解释正确的决策与判断。[53]默瑟认为神经科学家运用情绪解释理性行为,政治心理学家运用归因理论解释声望(reputation)的形成,他则运用情绪在信任与认同中的作用,去解决集体行动的问题。这种将理性主义与心理学解释相融合的努力,表明社会认知理论对于联盟选择与形成的说服力[54],同时,情绪与认知之间的相互作用,构成了心理学理论的理性假定基石。理性主义与认知研究至少存在两种综合的可能:理性选择理论假定偏好是给定和固定的,而心理学模型有助于解释偏好和利益的形成;在不同的问题领域,理性选择与心理模型的适用性不同[55]。
[1] 一般认为,第一个结合政治学与心理学两个领域的研究的学者是美国芝加哥大学政治学教授梅里安(Charles Merriam)。这一时期主要的理论为精神分析学说,具体文本可参阅:Sigmund Freud, “Why War?”, in William Ebenstein, Great Political Thinkers (3rd Edition), New York: Rinehart, 1960, pp.556-565. Harold D. Lasswell, Word Politics and Personal Insecurity, New York: Free Press, 1965.
[2] Bernard J. Barrs, The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology, New York: The Guilford Press, 1986, pp.6-8.
[4] 摩根索认为:“仅仅从政治家的动机来寻求外交政策的线索既是无效的,也是自欺欺人的。无效是因为动机是心理现象中最难以捉摸的东西。动机受到行为体和观察者利益和感情的扭曲,经常是面目全非。我们是否真正知道自己的动机是什么?我们又知道别人的动机是什么吗?”Hans J. Morgenthau (Revised by Kenneth W. Thompson), Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, Brief Edition, cGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993, p.5.
[5] Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis, New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.
[6] James F. Voss and Ellen Dorsey, “Perception and International Relations: An Overview”, in Eric Singer and Valerie Hudson eds., Political Psychology and Foreign Policy, Boulder: Westview Press, 1992, pp.5-6.
[7] Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Theory, Boulder: Westview Press, p.160.
[8] Herbert A. Simon, “Human Nature in Politics: The Dialogue of Psychology and Political Science”, in The American Political Science Review, Vol.79, No.2 (Jun., 1985), pp.293-304.
[10] Jerel A. Rosati, “A Cognitive Approach to the Study of Foreign Policy,” in Laura Neack, Jeanne Hey and Patrick Haney eds., Foreign Policy Analysis, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995, p.50.
[11] Steve Smith, “Belief Systems and the Study of International Relations”, in Richard Little and Steve Smith eds., Belief Systems and International Relations, New York: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1988, p.14.
[13] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976, pp.13-24.
[14] Daniel Kahneman, Paul Slovic, Amos Tversky eds., Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1982.
[15] Michael D. Young and Mark Schafer, “Is There Method in Our Madness? Ways of Assessing Cognition in International Relations,” in Mershon International Studies Review, Vol. 42, No.1, 1998, p.64.
[16] Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis, p.43.
[17] Christer Jönsson, “Introduction: Cognitive Approaches to International Politics”, in Christer Jönsson ed., Cognitive Dynamics and International Politics, London: Frances Pinter (Publisher) Limited, 1982, p.8.
[18] Gary King, Robert O. Keohane, Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference Qualitative Research, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1994, pp.14-19.
[19] 具体评介请参阅:Rose Mcdermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2004, Chapter 5: “Behavior: Do Actions Speak Louder Than Words?”
[20] 斯蒂芬·沃尔特(Stephen Walt)提出了“威胁均衡论”(balance-of-threat theory),见Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1987. 其他关于心理学与联盟研究:Dan. Reiter, “Learning, Realism, and Alliances: The Weight of the Shadow of Past,” in World Politics, Vol.46, No.2, 1994, pp.490-526. Thomas J. Christensen, “Perception and Alliances in Europe: 1865-1940,” in International Organization, Vol.51, No.1, Winter 1997, pp.65-97.
[21] Nathan C. Leites, A study of Bolshevism, New York: Free Press, 1953.
[22] Alexander L. George, “The ‘Operational Code’: A Neglected Approach to the Study of Political Leaders and Decision Making,” in International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 2, Jun. 1969, pp.190-222.
[23] 哲学信仰为:1、政治生活的本质是什么?政治世界本质上是和谐的还是冲突的?政敌的基本特性是什么?2、最终实现根本价值与愿望的前景如何?是乐观还是悲观?在哪些方面乐观,在哪些方面又是悲观?3、政治前景可预测吗?从哪些方面以及何种程度可以预知?4、对历史发展有多少控制力?在推动和塑造历史朝预期方向前进,人可起什么作用?5、“机遇”在人类事务和历史发展中起什么样的作用?工具信仰:1、如何选择最佳方案采取行动以实现政治目标?2、如何最有效地达到行动目的?3、如何评估、控制与应对政治行动的风险?4、什么时候是实现利益的最好时机?5、实现利益的不同手段的效用与作用如何?Alexander L. George, “The ‘Operational Code’: A Neglected Approach to the Study of Political Leaders and Decision Making,” pp.201-216.
[24] Michael D. Young and Mark Schafer, “Is There Method in Our Madness? Ways of Assessing Cognition in International Relations,” p.73.
[25] Stephen G. Walker, “The Interface between Beliefs and Behavior: Henry Kissinger’s Operational Code and the Vietnam War,” in The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.21, No.1, Mar. 1977, pp.129-168.
[26] Robert Axelrod ed., Structure of Decision: The Cognitive Maps of Political Elites, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976.
[27] Jeffrey A. Hart, “Cognitive Maps of Three Latin American Policy Makers,” in World Politics, Vol.30, No.1, Oct. 1977, pp.115-140.
[28] Ole R. Holsti, “The Belief System and National Images: A Case Study,” in The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.6, No.3, 1962, pp.244-252.
[29] Urie Bronfenbrenner, “The Mirror Image in Soviet-American Relations,” in Journal of Social Issues, Vol.16, pp. 45-56. Excerpt from Ralph K. White, Psychology and the Prevention of Nuclear War, New York: NYU Press, 1986, pp. 71-81.
[31] Alexander L. George, Presidential Decisionmaking in Foreign Policy: The Effective Use of Information and Advice, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1980, p.10.
[32] Yaacov Y. I. Vertzberger, “Foreign Policy Decisionmakers as Practical-Intuitive Historians: Applied History and Its Shortcomings,” in International Studies Quarterly, Vol.30, No.2, Jun. 1986, pp. 243.
[33] David M. Lampton, “The U.S. Image of Peking in Three International Crises,” in The Western Political Quarterly, Vol.26, 1973, pp.28-49.
[34] Yaacov Y. I. Vertzberger, “Foreign Policy Decisionmakers as Practical-Intuitive Historians: Applied History and Its Shortcomings,”pp.243-244. Also see Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics. Yaacov Y. I. Vertzberger, The World in Their Minds: Information Processing, Cognition, and Perception in Foreign Policy Decisionmaking, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1990, pp.296-342.
[35] Rose Mcdermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, p.1.
[36] Alexander L. George, Presidential Decisionmaking in Foreign Policy: The Effective Use of Information and Advice. Yuen Foong Khong, Analogies at War: Korea, Munich, Dien Bien Phu, and the Vietnam Decisions of 1965, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992.
[37] 有学者在梳理外交政策的认知视角分析时,分成三个时期:早期努力,即1930-1950年代;第一代学术研究共同体,即1950-1970年代认知革命兴起之前,之后便为第二代。见Jerel A. Rosati, “A Cognitive Approach to the Study of Foreign Policy,” pp.51-54. 笔者认为真正意义上的认知研究兴起应在二战后心理学界认知革命出现前后,即1950年代之后。而冷战结束后,由于国际格局的转变,以及认知研究出现的一些新的努力和转向,如进一步向社会认知、社会认同研究发展,故笔者将冷战后划为一个时期。
[38] Richard K. Herrmann, Perception and Behavior in Soviet Policy, Pittsburgh, Pa.: The University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985. Richard K. Herrmann, “Perception and Foreign Policy Analysis,” in Donald A. Sylvan and Steve Chan eds., Foreign Policy Decision Making: Perception, Cognition, and Artificial Intelligence, New York: Praeger Publishers, 1984, pp.25-53. 玛莎·科塔姆(Martha L. Cottam)将意象发展为7种:敌人(enemy) 、霸主(hegemonist) 敌人的附属国(dependent ally of the enemy)、中立(neutral)、盟友(ally)、本国的附属国(dependent of the perceiver’s state)、 本国的傀儡(puppet of the perceiver’s state). Martha L. Cottam, Foreign Policy Decision Making: The Influence of Cognition, Boulder and London: Westview Press, 1986.
[39] Richard K. Herrmann and Michael P. Fischerkeller, “Beyond the Enemy Image and Spiral Model: Cognitive-Strategic Research after the Cold War,” in International Organization, Vol. 49, No. 3, Summer 1995, pp.415-450. 认知研究主要集中于个体层次,但有不少学者试图综合个体、组织与体系等多个层次的变量,以扩大心理学路径的解释力,如Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985. Philip D. Stewart, Margaret G. Hermann, Charles F. Hermann, “Modeling the 1973 Soviet Decision to Support Egypt,” in The American Political Science Review, Vol.83, No.1, Mar. 1989, pp.35-59. 另有学者将作为自变量的认知因素综合分析,如Robert M. Cuter, “Unifying the Cognitive Map and Operational Code Approaches: An Integrated Framework with an Illustrative Example,” in Christer Jönsson ed., Cognitive Dynamics and International Politic, pp.91-122. Michael D. Young and Mark Schafer, “Is There Method in Our Madness? Ways of Assessing Cognition in International Relations.”
[41] Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition, Second Edition, New York: McGrw-Hill, Inc., 1991, pp.14-20.
[42] Ibid., p.18.
[43] Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation.
[44] Michael D. Young and Mark Schafer, “Is There Method in Our Madness? Ways of Assessing Cognition in International Relations,”p.67.
[45] Jerel A. Rosati, “A Cognitive Approach to the Study of Foreign Policy,”p.60.
[46] Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition. Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation. Jerel A. Rosati, The Carter Administration’s Quest for Global Community: Beliefs and Their Impact on Behavior, Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1987. Jerel A. Rosati, “The Impact of Beliefs on Behavior: The Foreign Policy of the Carter Administration,” in Donald A. Sylvan and Steve Chan eds., Foreign Policy Decision Making: Perception, Cognition, and Artificial Intelligence, pp.158-197.
[47] Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition, pp.439-50.
[48] 关于情绪与认知变量的关系及对政治世界的影响的探讨已成为2000年以来政治心理学界研究的重心与热点,其背后的学理基础为1980年代以来认知神经学科的进展。可参阅:David O. Sears, Leonie Huddy, Robert Jervis, eds., Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, New York: OXFORD University Press, 2003; G. E. Marcus, “Emotions in Politics,” in Annual Review of Political Science, 2000, Vol.3; Neta C. Crawford, “The Passion of World Politics: Propositions on Emotion and Emotional Relationships,” in International Security, Vol.24, No.4, Spring 2000.
[49] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics. Rose Mcdermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, pp.170-172.
[50] Jonathan Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1996. Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics,” in International Organization, Vol.59, No.4, Winter 2005, pp.77-106.
[51] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics.
[52] Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, Principles of International Politics: People’s Power, Preferences, and Perceptions, Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2000.
[53] Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics”.
[54] 尹继武:《社会认知与联盟形成:一种心理学的解释》,中国人民大学博士学位论文手稿。
[55] Rose Mcdermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, pp.16-17.
[61] Hans J. Morgenthau (Revised by Kenneth W. Thompson), Politics among Nations: the Struggle for Power and Peace.
[62] Richard K. Herrmann and Michael P. Fischerkeller, “Beyond the Enemy Image and Spiral Model: Cognitive-Strategic Research after the Cold War,” pp.448-450.
[63] 关于国际政治领域中的风险决策分析,请参阅:Rose McDermott, Risk-Taking in International Politics, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
[64] Stephen G. Walker, “Operational Code Analysis as a Scientific Research Program: A Cautionary Tale,” in Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman eds., Progress in International Relations Theory, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003, pp.265-273.
[65] Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics. Also see Robert Jervis, “War and Misperception,” in Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, No. 4, The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars, Spring 1988, pp.675-700.
[66] Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition, pp.117-121.
[69] Jerel A. Rosati, “A Cognitive Approach to the Study of Foreign Policy”, p.61. Michael D. Young and Mark Schafer, “Is There Method in Our Madness? Ways of Assessing Cognition in International Relations.”
[70] Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics.”
[71] Richard Herrmann, “The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution: A Strategy for Drawing Inferences about Perceptions,” in International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.2, Jun. 1988, pp.175-203.
[72] 如乔治最初的工作只在于将操作码进行一般化和操作化,但后来他在研究中,一方面将操作码视为一种社会认知的图式,并指出操作码与态度的区别,另方面试图揭示领导人操作码与政治行为之间的相关性或因果性。Alexander L. George, “The Causal Nexus between Cognitive Beliefs and Decision-Making Behavior: The ‘Operational Code’ Belief System,” in Lawrence S. Falkowski ed., Psychological Models in International Politics, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1979, pp.95-125.
[73] Robert Jervis, “Leadership, Post-Cold War Politics, and Psychology,” in Political Psychology, Vol. 15, No. 4, December 1994, pp.769-778.
[74] Peter Katzenstein ed., The Culture of National Security, New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
[75] [英] 伊姆雷·拉卡托斯:《证伪和科学研究纲领方法论》,第200页。本文并没有对认知心理学应用于国际关系研究中的方法论以及团体过程、组织层次的研究,如小集团思维(group thinking)等进行评介。国际政治认知研究的方法均来源于认知心理学与政治科学,故笔者认为国际关系层次的研究应着重解决的是对认知心理学之于国际关系研究的正当、可能与问题等的论证。关于方法论,请参阅:Rose Mcdermott, Political Psychology in International Relations, Chapter 2.