考克斯(Robert Cox)继承了葛兰西的分析模式,并创造性地提出霸权是一种关于秩序性质的价值结构与理解结构。他指出,霸权意味着支配性大国创造出以观念意识的广泛共识为基础的统治秩序,它以确保主导国家的主导阶级的至上地位、同时提供让其他弱国满意的原则和措施来发挥领导作用。[37]约翰·伊肯伯里和查尔斯·库普宸(Charles A. Kupchan)接续此定义,指出霸权具有社会化的功能,即将其所倡导的价值观和行为标准内化为次级国家的主导思想意识,并辅之以物质权力的刺激和惩罚。[38]
第二次世界大战给美国提供了建立霸权的机遇。美国的经济实力在19世纪末已经跃居世界首位,而二战使得美国一度占有世界财富的40%,在生产效率、工业、商业能力、金融等方面处于绝对优势的地位,并主导着欧洲的战后经济重建,美国国力之强盛“令人难以置信”;美国的军事力量大大超出世界其他强国,并一度垄断原*子DAN,它在全球建立战略基地,并拥有向任何地区投送兵力的能力;作为战时三大盟国之首、世界反法西斯联盟的核心,美国的政治意愿和设计基本得到其他主要国家的配合。美国不仅拥有影响和管理的实力,也表现出强烈的政治意愿。自立国之日起,美国就把自己当作“自由的灯塔”,坚信自己的“天定命运”(Manifest Destiny)是安排整个世界,把人类引向“新的耶路撒冷”。[52]爱德华﹒卡尔(Edward Carr)认为,“1918年,在差不多一致赞同的情况下,世界领导权已奉献给美国,……但被拒绝了。”[53]其原因不仅在于英国霸权依然残存,也源于美国尚不具备建立霸权体系的实力和意愿。第二次世界大战被许多美国人视为“美国世纪”(The American Century)到来的前奏,影响美国至深的孤立主义思想退出外交决策圈,建立霸权已经成为美国的根本性外交目标。
乔治·W·布什上台以来,美国的单边主义倾向彰显。布什上台一年多,美国政府撕毁国际条约和违背的联合国协议比世界上其他国家过去20年的总和还多。从《联合国海洋法》到《京都议定书》,从《生物多样性公约》、对古巴或伊朗实施的境外贸易禁运、要求世界银行和国际货币基金组织实施改革到拒绝国际刑事法庭,美国的单边主义无所不在。[75]“9·11事件”使美国转而在某些重大议题上倚重国际制度,但利用国际制度、改造国际制度才是其核心战略设计。例如,将先发制人视为美国大战略的核心决定了美国的目标是确保优势地位,而不是追求全球战略平衡;[76]强调以菜单式多边主义(Multilateralism a la Carte)取代宪章式多边主义(Multilateralism a la Charte)——即任务决定联盟——意味着美国对国际制度的战略发生了转移,[77]即对国际制度采取机会主义的态度,[78]在利用国际制度的同时拒绝接受多边主义的束缚。与此同时,布什政府非常注重国际制度创中的先行者优势,积极谋求海上拦截检查等新领域的国际制度建设的主导权。
[3] John Ikenberry, “Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Persistence of America’s Postwar Order”, International Security, Vol.23, No.3, Winter 1998/1999, pp.43-78.
[4] Robert O. Keohane, “Governance in a Partially Globalized World”, American Political Science Review, March 2001, pp.1-13.
[5] Oran Young et al, Polar Politics: Creating International Environmental Regimes, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993, pp.223-261; Rittberger et al, International Regimes in East-West Relations, London: Pinter, 1990, pp.9-63.
[6] Robert O. Keohane, “Governance in a Partially Globalized World”, pp.1-13.
[14] Robert Cox, “Social Forces, State and World Order: Beyond International Relations Theory”, in Keohane (ed.), Neorealism and Its Critic, New York: Columbia University Press, 1986, pp.217-248; Robert Cox, Approaches to World Order, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p.246. 有识者指出,从长远看,国际制度是对西方规范主导国际关系态势的否定,但目前这一判断主要还是学理性的。参见:刘杰:《试论国际机制中的西方规范问题》,载《世界经济研究》1997年第3期,第42-46页。
[15] Richard Ashley, “The Poverty of Neoliberalism”, International Organization, Vol.38, 1984, p.243.
[21] 对小国特别是非常小的国家而言,国际制度是其外交的重要舞台。国家越大,实力越强,它们对双边关系的重视程度就会超过多边制度,它们对多边制度的态度越复杂。参见:Daniel Deudney and John Ikenberry, “Realism, Structural Liberalism, and the Western Order,”, in Ethan B. Kapstein and Michael Mastanduno, eds., Unipolar Politics: Realism and State Strategies After the Cold War, New York: Columbia University Press, 1999, Chapter 4; W. Michael Reisman, “The United States and International Institutions”, Survival, Vol.41, No.4, 1999-2000, pp.62-80.
[22] 类似看法可参见:Joseph Nye, The Paradox of American Power: Why the World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go It Alone?, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, p.158; Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The New Rome meets the New Barbarians”, The Economist, 3 March 2002, Vol. 362, No.8265, pp.23-25.
[23] G. John Ikenberry, “Why Export Democracy? The ‘Hidden Grand Strategy’ of American Foreign Policy”, The Wilson Quarterly (Vol. 23, No.2), Spring 1999. See http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/exdem.htm.
[25] W. Michael Reisman, “The United States and International Institutions”, pp.62-80.
[26] G. John Ikenberry, “Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Persistence of America’s Postwar Order”, pp.43-78.
[27] G. John Ikenberry, “Getting Hegemony Right”, The National Interest, Spring 2001, pp.17-24; Edward Luck, Mixed Messages: American Politics and International Organization, 1919-1999, Washington: Brooking Institution Press, 1999, p.61.
[28] Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power, Vol.2, The Rise of Classes and Nation States, 1760-1914, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
[32] Jane Boulden and Thomas Weiss, “Tactical Multilateralism: Coaxing America Back to the UN”, Survival, Vol.46, No.3, Autumn, 2004, pp.103-114.
[33] 如帕特里克·卡尔·奥布赖恩指出,霸权指的是主导国家部署权力和说服力,以维护地球、防止战事、促进全球经济稳定、商业和文化交流。参见:Patrick Karl O’Brien, “The Pax Britannica and American Hegemony: Precedent, Antecedent or just Another History?”, in Patrick Karl O’Brien and Armand Clesse, eds., Two Hegemonies: Britain 1846-1914 and the United States 1941-2001, Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2002, p.4.
[34] Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary, New York: Dorset & Baber, 1979, p. 841.
[35] Robert G. Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981, p.116; Nail Ferguson, “Hegemony or Empire? ”, Foreign Affairs, September/ October, 2003.
[36] 安东尼奥·葛兰西:《狱中札记》,北京:中国社会科学出版社2000年版。
[37] Robert Cox, Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History, New York: Columbia University Press, 1987, p.7.
[38] G. John Ikenberry and Charles A. Kupchan, “Socialization and Hegemonic Power”, International Organization, Vol.44, No. 3, Summer 1990, pp.283-315,
[39] Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World-System II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World Economy 1600-1750, New York: Academic Press, 1980, pp.38-39.
[40] Immanuel Wallerstein, “The Politics of the World Economy: The States”, The Movement and the Civilizations, Cambridge University Press, 1984, p.38.
[41] Immanuel Wallerstein, “Three Hegemonies”, in Patrick Karl O’Brien and Armand Clesse, eds., Two Hegemonies: Britain 1846-1914 and the United States 1941-2001, pp.357-361
[42] 转引自:Lea Brilmayer, American Hegemony: Political Morality in a One-Superpower World, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994, p.14.
[43] Robert Keohane, International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory, p.234.
[47] G. John Ikenberry, “Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Persistence of American Post-war Order”, pp.43-78.
[48] G. John Ikenberry, “Rethinking the Origins of American Hegemony,” pp.375-400.
[49] Arthur A. Stein, “The Hegemon’s Dilemma: Great Britain, the United States, and the International Economic Order”, International Organization, Vol.38, No.2, Spring 1984, pp.355-386.
[50] Duncan Snidal, “The Limits of Hegemonic Stability”, International Organization, Vol.39, No.4, Autumn 1985, pp.579-614.
[51] 思拉恩﹒埃格特森:《新制度经济学》,北京:商务印书馆1996年版,第274页。
[52] Albert Weinberg, Manifest Destiny: A Study of Nationalist Expansionism in American History, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1963, pp72-77.
[54] Robert Keohane, “Governance in a Partially Globalized World”, pp.1-13; G. John Ikenberry, “Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Persistence of American Postwar Order”, pp.43-78; John Mearsheimer, “Why We Will Soon Miss the Cold War”, Atlantic Monthly, August 1990, pp.35-50.
[55] Chris Brown, Understanding International Relations, Houndmills: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1997, p.50.
[56] Robert Crawford, Regime Theory in the Post-Cold War World: Rethinking Neoliberal Approaches to International Relations, p.53; Robert Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, pp.32-38.
[61] 参见布热津斯基:《大棋局——美国的首要地位及其地缘战略》,上海人民出版社1998年版,第39页;Stephen D. Krasner, “Structure Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes as International Variables”, International Organization, p.186.
[62] 约瑟夫·奈认为:软权力包括文化吸引力、意识形态和国际机制三个方面。参见:Joseph Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, New York: Basic Books, 1990, p.188 & p267.
[63] Robert Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, p.126.
[64] Klans Knor, The Power of Nations, New York: Basic Books, 1975, p.25.
[65] Joseph Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, p.192.
[66] Robert Gilpin, U.S. Power and Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment, New York: Basic Books, 1975, p.85.
[67] G. John Ikenberry, “Liberal Hegemony and Future of American Postwar Order”, in T. V. Paul and John A. Hall, eds., International Order and the Future of World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp.123-145.
[68] 约翰·伊肯伯里强调指出,战略性自我约束是美国霸权的创举,也是美国得以维系其霸权的法宝,是冷战后美国霸权体系得以延续的关键。参见:G. John Ikenberry, “Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Persistence of American Post-war Order”, pp.43-78.
[70] 李普曼认为,这是外交政策的基本问题。参见:Walter Lippmann, U.S. Foreign Policy: Shield of the Republic, Boston: A.W. Sijthoff Company, 1943, p.7.
[71] John Conybeare, “Public Goods, Prisoners’ Dilemmas and the International Political Economy”, International Studies Quarterly, 1984, Vol.28, pp.5-22.
[72] Robert Keohane, International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory, pp.122-125.
[79] Joseph Nye, The Paradox of American Power: Why the World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go It Alone?, pp.137-171.
[80] Larry Korb and Michael Kraig, Strategies for US National Security: Winning the Peace in the 21st Century (A Task Force Report of the Strategies for US National Security Program), The Stanley Foundation, October 2003, p.27.