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①参见Locher , Birgit , and Prugl , “Elisabeth , Feminism: Con2structivism’s Other Pedigree”; Milliken , Jennifer ,“Discourse Study : BringRigor to Critical Theory”; Klotz , Audie ,“Can We Speak a Common Con2structivist Language ?”in Fierke , Karin M. &Jorgensen , Knud Erik eds. ,Constructing International Relations : the Next Generation , Armonk , N. Y. :M. E. Sharpe , 2001.
② Norman Fairclough , Discourse and Social Change , Cambridge ,1992 , pp. 3 - 4.
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②Michel Foucault , The Archaeology of Knowledge , New York , Pan2theon Books , 1972 , p. 27.
③Memo from President Nixon to Assistant to President for NationalSecurity Affairs Kissinger , 1 February 1969. Source : National Archives ,Nixon Presidential Materials Project (NPMP) , National Security Council files(NSCF) , box 1032 , [ Fortune ] Cookies II [ Chronology of Exchanges withPRC Feb. 1969 - April 1971 ] .
④Michel Foucault , The Order of Things : An Archeology of the Hu2man Sciences , Vintage , New York , 1973 , p. 27.
⑤Norman Fairclough , Discourse and Social Change , Cambridge ,1992 , p. 38.
⑥Michel Foucault , The Order of Things : An Archeology of the Hu2man Sciences , pp. 26 - 30.
⑦Memo from Winston Lord to Assistant to President for National Se2curity Affairs Kissinger , July 29 , 1971. Source : National Archives , NixonPresidential Materials Project ( NPMP) , National Security Council files(NSCF) , box 1032 , [ Fortune ] Cookies II [ Chronology of Exchanges withPRC Feb. 1969 - April 1971 ] .
⑧ A. I. Davidson ,“Archaeology , Genealogy , Ethics”, in D. C.Hoy ed. , Foucault : a critical reader , Oxford : Basil Blackwell , p. 224.
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①Michel Foucault : Discipline and Punish : The Birth of the PrisonI ,Trans , by Alan Sheridan , New York : Vintage Books , 1995 , p. 194.
②Ibid. , p. 27.
③相关话语参见理查德•尼克松:《尼克松回忆录》,商务印书馆1978 年版, 第361 - 362 页; Richard Nixon ,“Asia After Vietnam”,Foreign Affairs , Vol . 46 , No. 1 , 1967 , p. 111 ;理查德•尼克松:《1999 :不战而胜》,世界知识出版社1997 年版,第287 页;黄金树:《敢为人先:尼克松》,学苑出版社1996 年版,第250 - 251 页;Richard Nixon , U. S .Foreign Policy for the 1970’s : A New Strategy for Peace , A Report to theCongress , February 18 , 1970 , p. 140.
④Michel Foucault : Ethics : Essential Works of Foucault 1954 -1984 , Vol . 1 , Penguin , Harmondsworth , 1997 , p. 297.
⑥ 有关后现代主义的论述可参考Madan Sarup , An IntroductoryGuide to Post - Structuralism and Postmodernism , Athens : The University ofGeorgia Press , 1993 ; Stuart Sim ed. , The Poutledge Critical Dictionary ofPostmodern Thought , N. Y. : Routledge , 1999 ; Michael W. Nicholson , ATheological Analysis and Critique of the postmodernism Debate : Mapping theLabyrinth Lewiston , N. Y. : Mellen University Press , 1997.
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①J . Der Derian ,“The boundaries of knowledge and power in Inter2national Relations”, in J . Der Derian and M. J . Shapiro eds. , InternationalPIntertextual Relations : Postmodern Readings of World Politics , Massachu2setts , 1989 , p. 6.
②Scott Burchill and Andrew Linklater , Theories of International Re2lations , Basingstoke : Macmillan , 1996 , p. 188.
③D. Campbell , Writing Security : United States Foreign Policy andthe Politics of Identity , Minneapolis , 1992.
④J . Derrida , Positions , Chicago , 1981 , p. 6.
⑤Scott Burchill and Andrew Linklater , Theories of International Re2lations , p. 190.
⑥ J . Der Derian , “Philosophical Traditions in International Rela2tions”, Millennium , Vol . 12 , No. 2 , 1988 , p. 189.
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国际关系学者对“话语”的关注并非始于后现代。许多学者在解读国际关系文本时,非常重视这种语言标志符号的变化。例如,研究中美关系的学者会关注美国在何时、何地开始公开使用“中华人民共和国”,而不再使用“共产主义中国”,以及称蒋介石政权为“台湾”,而不再是“+++国”。同样,中国的大众话语中的美国形象也随着中美关系的发展变化而产生着变化。“美帝国主义”、“美利坚合众国”、“中国人民的老朋友”、“世界警察”等等是中美关系发展到不同阶段而产生的特有称谓, ① 也是中美关系亲疏远近的信号和标志。这些特质性话语的出现是观念的反映,中美两国的民众对彼此的印象和观念也是随着话语的变化而不断建构、发展的。正如钱皓教授所言, “话语和观念是一个双向运动的整合体,在这个过程中,话语对观念产生强化或弱化的作用,同样,观念也不断影响改变着话语。这样的动态循环过程不仅是由话语的社会属性决定的,也是由观念的社会属性所决定,当然,来自外部的力量因素也是不容忽视的”。②
国际关系学者越来越关注运用后现代的研究方法和视角,分析话语,解读文本,并由此透视权力的运作。这是国际关系研究领域中研究态度的转变,也是研究方法的一大进步。然而,遗憾的是,时至今日,在国际关系研究领域仍无一套系统、高效的话语分析方法。福柯“话语观”虽为国际关系研究中的话语分析提供了理论支持,但并不适合作为具体的话语分析方法使用,因为它过于抽象。德里达提出的用解构的办法对文本进行双重阅读,虽比福柯的话语理论具体了一些,但仍未说明怎样进行解构,即只提出了要解构什么(what to deconstruct) ,并未指明应该怎样解构(how to deconstruct) 。前文所提到的国际关系学者重视语言标志符号的研究,这只是话语分析的一个组成部分而已。学者们在进行此项研究时,大多是凭借多年积累的经验和直觉,缺乏系统、实用的研究方法的指导。
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①Bob Woodward , Plan of Attack , New York : Simon & Schuster ,2004 ,pp. 221 - 226.
②Hilary Janks ,“Critical Discourse Analysis as a Research Tool”, inMichael Toolan ed. , Critical Discourse Analysis : Critical Concepts in Lin2guistics , London : Routledge , 2002 , p. 26.
③ 参见Ruth Wodak , Disorders of Discourse , New York ,1996 ; Nor2man Fairclough and Ruth Wodak ,“Critical Discourse Analysis”, in Van Di2jk , Teun A. ed. , Discourse as Social Interaction , London : Thousand Oaksand New Delhi , 1997 , pp. 258 - 84.
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①参见Norman Fairclough , Language and Power , London : Long2man , 1989 ; Critical Discourse Analysis : The Critical Study of Language ,London and New York , 1995.
②John B. Thompson , Ideology and Modern Culture : Critical SocialTheory in the Era of Mass Communication , Cambridge , Polity Press , 1990 ,p. 281.
③ 因此项研究依据的主要材料是美国国家第二档案馆1998 -2003 年解密的尼克松总统档案,主要考察尼克松时期的美对华决策,故称“美中关系”,而非“中美关系”。