二、来自现实主义内部的批判
冷战结束后,各派理论纷纷崛起。当建构主义等学派质疑现实主义的解释力并吸引大量目光时,现实主义学派内部也出现了种种批评的声音。林恩·琼斯(Sean M. Lynn-Jones)的《无政府状态的危险:当代现实主义与国际安全》(1995年)、弗兰克尔(Benjamin Frankel)的《现实主义:重新表述和翻新》(1996年)、瓦斯克斯(John Vasquez)的《现实主义范式及其堕落与进步的研究计划:关于沃尔兹均势命题的新传统研究评价》(1997年)以及勒格罗(Jeffrey W. Legro)和莫拉弗茨克(Andrew Moravcsik)的《还有人是现实主义者吗?》(1999年)等,都对现实主义主义的最新发展提出了严厉批评,认为现实主义的内核由于这些可称为最小现实主义(minimal realism)的理论“创新”而受到损害。[20]
[1] Hans Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 5th ed., New York: Knopf, 1973, pp.40-44, 64-73, 208.
[2]李少军:《国际政治学概论》,上海:上海人民出版社,2003年版,第35页。
[3] Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979, p.118, 126.
[4] Randall L. Schweller, “Neorealism’s Status-Quo Bias: What Security Dilemma?” Security Studies, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1996, p.90; [美]约翰·米尔斯海默著,王义桅、唐小松译:《大国政治的悲剧》,上海:上海人民出版社,2003年4月版,第18页。
[5]Stephen Van Evera, “Offence, Defense and the Causes of War”引自李少军:《国际政治学概论》,第41页。
[6] Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War: Power and the Roots of Conflict, New York: Cornell University Press, 1999, p. 2.
[7] Jack L. Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition, New York: Cornell University Press, 1991, p.14.
[8] [美]约翰·米尔斯海默:《大国政治的悲剧》,第20页。
[9] 李少军:《国际政治学概论》,第42页。
[10] John J. Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold War," International
Security, Vol. 15, No. 4 , Summer 1990, pp. 5-6.
[11] 国内政治理论学派强调国内因素如政治、经济意识形态、民族特性、党派政治和社会经济结构决定国家的外部行为。这一理论有多种变体,每一变体偏重不同的国内独立变量,但所有变量都拥有一个共同的假定,即国家的外交政策和外部行为源自国内的动机和动力。参见Jacks Levy, “Domestic Politics and War,” in Robert I. Rotbery and Theodore K. Rabb. eds., The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
[12] William Curti Wohlforth, The Elusive Balance: Power and Perception During the Cold War, New York: Cornell University Press, 1993, p.301-302.
[13] Randall Schweller, Deadly Imbalances: Tripolarity and Hitler Strategy of World Conquest, New York: Columbia University, 1998, 218-221; Thomas J. Christensen, Useful Adversaries: Grand Strategy, Domestic Mobilization and Sino-American Conflict, 1947-1958, p.8-10; Gideon Rose, “Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy”, World Politics 51, October 1998, pp.144-172.
[14] Fareed Zakria, From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998, p.9-12.
[15] Hans Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973, pp.7-8; Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, Reading Mass: Addison- Wesley, 1979, p.94.
[16] Robert Gilpin, “No One Loves a Political Realist,” and Kenneth Waltz, “Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory,” in Robert L. Rothstein, ed., The Evolution of Theory in International Relations, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991, p.37.
[17] Hans Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, pp.2-12; Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p.18.
[18] Hans Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, p.5; Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p.75; Michael Joseph Smith, Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986, p.103.
[19] Benjamin Frankel, “Restating the Realist Case,” in Benjamin Frankel, ed., Realism: Restatement and Renewal, London: Frank Cass, 1996, pp.xii-xiv.
[20] 参见Sean M. Lynn-Jones, and Steven E. Miller, eds., The Perils of Anarchy: Contemporary Realism and International Security, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995; Benjamin Frankel, ed., Realism: Restatements and Renewal, London: Frank Cass, 1996; John Vasquez, “The Realist Paradigm and Degenerative vs. Progressive Research Programs: An Appraisal of Neotraditional Research on Waltz’s Balancing Proposition,” American Political Science Review, Vol.91, No. 4, December 1997, pp.899-912; Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?” International Security, Vol. 24, No. 2, Fall 1999, pp.5-55.
[21]迈克斯·班克斯把国际关系理论分为三个主要范式:现实主义、多元主义和全球主义。见Michael Banks, “The Inter-paradigm”, in Margot Lignt and AJR Groom, International Relations-A Handbook of Current Theory, Frances Printer(Publishers)Ltd., 1985, p.9, 11;勒格罗、莫拉弗茨克、瓦斯克斯等人认为最有影响的理性范式是现实主义、自由主义、制度主义和认识理论,把自由主义和制度主义划分为两个范式,把建构主义归为认知理论范式。见Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”p.9; John Vasquez, “The Realist Paradigm and Degenerative vs. Progressive Research Programs. 制度主义强调制度、规范和信息,例如功能规制理论(functional regime theory)的交易成本分析;自由主义强调经济相互依赖、国内代表制度(domestic representative institution)以及与公共产品如身份、社会经济再分配、主权类型相关的社会妥协等因素的原发影响力;认知理论强调共享信念、文化、观念对国家行为的影响。关于制度主义核心假定的详细论述,见Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power, Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1989; Stephen D. Krasner, ed., International Regimes, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983; [美]罗伯特·基欧汉著,苏长和等译:《霸权之后:世界政治经济中的合作与纷争》,上海人民出版社,2001年版;关于自由主义核心假定的论述,见Robert O. Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition, Boston: Little Brown, 1977; Michael Doyle, “Liberalism and World Politics,” American Political Science Review, Vol. 80, No. 4, December 1986, pp.1151-1169; 关于认知理论核心假定的详细论述,见Peter M. Haas, “Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination,” International Organization, Vol.46, No.1, Winter 1992, pp.1-35; John G. Ruggie, “Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations ,” International Organization, Vol.47, No.4, Winter 1993; Judith Goldstein, Ideas, Interests, and American Trade Policy, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1993; Peter J. Katzenstein, ed., Culture of National Security: Norms, Identity, and World Politics, New York: Columbia University Press, 1996; Dan Reiter, Crucible of Beliefs, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1996;Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”p.20.
[22]例如,罗伯特·格里科主张现实主义只需接受理性和无政府状态,即追求理性的“自助”,就足以生成国家对安全的担心、寻求相对收益和物质权力平衡等现实主义理论的其他成分。见Joseph M. Grieco, “Realist International Theory and the Study of World Politics,” in Michael W. Doyle and G. John Ikenberry, eds., New Thinking in International Relations Theory, Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1997, pp.166-168.
[23] John Vasquez, “The Realist Paradigm and Degenerative vs. Progressive Research Programs: An Appraisal of Neotraditional Research on Waltz’s Balancing Proposition,” p.900.
[24] Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”p.23.
[25] Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition, Ithaca, New York.: Cornell University Press, 1991, p.12-15.
[26] Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition, pp.19-20.
[27] Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”p.23-24.
[28] Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War, pp.9-15.
[29] Peter Liberman, “The Spoils of Conquest,” International Security, Vol.18, No. 2, Fall 1993, pp.125-153; Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”p.33.
[33] Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”pp.28-29.
[34] Randall Schweller, Deadly Imbalances, p.38, 20, 200-201; 摩根索始终把现实主义元素和非现实主义元素区分开来:现实主义元素建立在“以权力定义利益的概念之上”,独立于法律、道德和经济,而“把政治列为行动和理念范畴”。见Hans Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, pp.5, 7-8, 12; 批评见Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”p.31-32.
[35] Benjamin Frankel, ed., Realism: Restatements and Renewal, p.xiii.
[36] Stephen M. Walt, The Origins of Alliances, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1987,pp.viii, 5, 21.
[37] Benjamin Frankel, ed., Realism: Restatements and Renewal, p.xiv.
[38] Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”pp.37-38.
[39] William Curti Wohlforth, The Elusive Balance, pp.52-53, 220-229,250; Wohlforth, “Realism and the End of the Cold War,” in Brown, Lynne-Joes, and Miller, The Perils of Anarchy, pp.21-23, 32-39.
[40] Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”Pp.39-40.
[41] Joseph M. Grieco, “Realist International Theory and the Study of World Politics,” pp.184-186.
[42] Joseph M. Grieco, “State Interests and Institutional Rule Trajectories: A Neorealist Interpretation of the Maastricht Treaty and European Economic and Monetary Union,” in Benjamin Frankel, ed., Realism, pp.287-290.
[43] Joseph M. Grieco, “State Interests and Institutional Rule Trajectories, p. 304; Andrew Moravcsik, The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1998, Chap. 6, p.82.
[44] Charles L. Glaser, “Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-Help,” International Security 19, No. 3, winter 1994-1995, pp.50-90.
[45] 关于制度主义的合作思想,见[美]罗伯特·基欧汉:《霸权之后》,第59-68;Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?”Pp.43-45.
[46] John A. Vasquez, “The Realist Paradigm and Degenerative versus Progressive Research Programs, p.891-899; Steve Chan, “Realism, Revisionism, and the Great Powers,” http://sobek.colorado.edu/~gries/SASD/2003readings; 米尔斯海默关于大国行为的论述,见米尔斯海默:《大国政治的悲剧》,第五章:“生存战略”。
[47] Kenneth N. Waltz, “Structural Realism after the Cold War,” International Security, Vol.25, N.1, summer 2000, pp.5-41.
[48] 见Alder, Emmanuel, and Beverly Crawford, Progress in Postwar International Relations, New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.
[53]见Otto Hintz, The Historical Essays of Otto Hintz, New York: Oxford University Press, 1975; Charles Tilly, ed., The Formation of National States in Western Europe, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975.
[54] Barry R. Posen, “Nationalism, the Mass Army, and Military Power,” International Security, Vol.18, No. 2, Fall 1993, pp.80-124; John J. Mearsheimer, "Back to the Future,” p.11.